| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol 4, 20-34, Copyright © 1956 by The American Society for Clinical Nutrition, Inc.
1 Professor, Faculty of Medicine of Marseille; Physician to the Hospitals; 19, Rue Fontange, Marseille, France
The obesities are distinguished from each other essentially by the degree of protein anabolism, that is, muscle-blood anabolism, which is associated with adipose hyperanabolism. Anthropometry demonstrates that the degree of this muscle-blood anabolism is greater in proportion to the predominance of fat over the upper part of the body, a characteristic linked to others which indicate the degree of masculine differentiation in both sexes. The calculation of an index of masculine differentiation (which is described) enables one to distinguish android and gynoid obesities and their intermediate forms.
Gynoid obesity, with lower body predominance, with poor muscle-blood development, is menaced only by direct mechanical complications of excessive adiposity: locomotor difficulty, abdominal pressure, limitation of respiratory motion, slowing of the venous and lymphatic circulation, cellulitis, lowering of energy, and reduction of the elasticity of the fat-infiltrated myocardium—complications which are all proportional to the degree of excess fat.
Android obesity, with upper body predominance and pronounced muscle-blood development, leads to metabolic disturbances. It not only is associated with premature atherosclerosis and diabetes, but it is also the usual cause of diabetes in the adult in 80 to 90 per cent of the cases. Gout and uric calculous disease generally appear in this form of obesity.
Overactivity of the pituitary-adrenal axis appears to be the most probable cause both of android obesity and its complications.
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  A. Colao, C. Di Somma, S. Spiezia, S. Savastano, F. Rota, M. C. Savanelli, and G. Lombardi Growth Hormone Treatment on Atherosclerosis: Results of a 5-Year Open, Prospective, Controlled Study in Male Patients with Severe Growth Hormone Deficiency J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2008; 93(9): 3416 - 3424. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Landsberg Body Fat Distribution and Cardiovascular Risk: A Tale of 2 Sites Arch Intern Med, August 11, 2008; 168(15): 1607 - 1608. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. A Bray, K. A Jablonski, W. Y Fujimoto, E. Barrett-Connor, S. Haffner, R. L Hanson, J. O Hill, V. Hubbard, A. Kriska, E. Stamm, et al. Relation of central adiposity and body mass index to the development of diabetes in the Diabetes Prevention Program Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2008; 87(5): 1212 - 1218. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Syme, M. Abrahamowicz, G. T. Leonard, M. Perron, A. Pitiot, X. Qiu, L. Richer, J. Totman, S. Veillette, Y. Xiao, et al. Intra-abdominal Adiposity and Individual Components of the Metabolic Syndrome in Adolescence: Sex Differences and Underlying Mechanisms Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, May 1, 2008; 162(5): 453 - 461. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. M. Janiszewski, T. J. Saunders, and R. Ross Themed Review: Lifestyle Treatment of the Metabolic Syndrome American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, April 1, 2008; 2(2): 99 - 108. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J.-P. Despres, P. Poirier, J. Bergeron, A. Tremblay, I. Lemieux, and N. Almeras From individual risk factors and the metabolic syndrome to global cardiometabolic risk Eur. Heart J. Suppl., March 1, 2008; 10(suppl_B): B24 - B33. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. D Tchoukalova, C. Koutsari, M. V Karpyak, S. B Votruba, E. Wendland, and M. D Jensen Subcutaneous adipocyte size and body fat distribution Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2008; 87(1): 56 - 63. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Shi, A. D. Strader, S. C. Woods, and R. J. Seeley The effect of fat removal on glucose tolerance is depot specific in male and female mice Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, October 1, 2007; 293(4): E1012 - E1020. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. S Freedman, H. S Kahn, Z. Mei, L. M Grummer-Strawn, W. H Dietz, S. R Srinivasan, and G. S Berenson Relation of body mass index and waist-to-height ratio to cardiovascular disease risk factors in children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2007; 86(1): 33 - 40. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. Y. Polotsky Mouse model of the metabolic syndrome: the quest continues J Appl Physiol, June 1, 2007; 102(6): 2088 - 2089. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. Y. Fujimoto, K. A. Jablonski, G. A. Bray, A. Kriska, E. Barrett-Connor, S. Haffner, R. Hanson, J. O. Hill, V. Hubbard, E. Stamm, et al. Body Size and Shape Changes and the Risk of Diabetes in the Diabetes Prevention Program Diabetes, June 1, 2007; 56(6): 1680 - 1685. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. S. Beaser and P. Levy A Work in Progress, but a Useful Construct Circulation, April 3, 2007; 115(13): 1812 - 1818. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 N. Unwin The metabolic syndrome J R Soc Med, September 1, 2006; 99(9): 457 - 462. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. J Wilkin and L. D Voss Metabolic syndrome: maladaptation to a modern world J R Soc Med, November 1, 2004; 97(11): 511 - 520. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Khaodhiar, P.-R. Ling, G. L. Blackburn, and B. R. Bistrian Serum Levels of Interleukin-6 and C-Reactive Protein Correlate With Body Mass Index Across the Broad Range of Obesity JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr, November 1, 2004; 28(6): 410 - 415. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C Bolduc, M Larose, M Yoshioka, P Ye, P Belleau, C Labrie, J Morissette, V Raymond, F Labrie, and J St-Amand Effects of dihydrotestosterone on adipose tissue measured by serial analysis of gene expression J. Mol. Endocrinol., October 1, 2004; 33(2): 429 - 444. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. F. C. van Rossum, P. G. Voorhoeve, S. J. te Velde, J. W. Koper, H. A. Delemarre-van de Waal, H. C. G. Kemper, and S. W. J. Lamberts The ER22/23EK Polymorphism in the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene Is Associated with a Beneficial Body Composition and Muscle Strength in Young Adults J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2004; 89(8): 4004 - 4009. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. M. Sharma Mediastinal Fat, Insulin Resistance, and Hypertension Hypertension, August 1, 2004; 44(2): 117 - 118. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. Okura, Y. Nakata, K. Yamabuki, and K. Tanaka Regional Body Composition Changes Exhibit Opposing Effects on Coronary Heart Disease Risk Factors Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., May 1, 2004; 24(5): 923 - 929. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. Ghosh, K. Bose, S. Chakravarti, A. B. D. Chaudhuri, J. Chattopadhyay, G. Dasgupta, and S. Sengupta Central obesity and coronary risk factors The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, March 1, 2004; 124(2): 86 - 91. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. M. Dorn, K. Hovey, P. Muti, J. L. Freudenheim, M. Russell, T. H. Nochajski, and M. Trevisan Alcohol Drinking Patterns Differentially Affect Central Adiposity as Measured by Abdominal Height in Women and Men J. Nutr., August 1, 2003; 133(8): 2655 - 2662. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S.-H. Suk, R. L. Sacco, B. Boden-Albala, J. F. Cheun, J. G. Pittman, M. S. Elkind, and M. C. Paik Abdominal Obesity and Risk of Ischemic Stroke: The Northern Manhattan Stroke Study Stroke, July 1, 2003; 34(7): 1586 - 1592. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. C. Carr The Emergence of the Metabolic Syndrome with Menopause J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2003; 88(6): 2404 - 2411. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 F. F. Ribeiro-Filho, A. N. Faria, N. E.B. Kohlmann, M.-T. Zanella, and S. R.G. Ferreira Two-Hour Insulin Determination Improves the Ability of Abdominal Fat Measurement to Identify Risk for the Metabolic Syndrome Diabetes Care, June 1, 2003; 26(6): 1725 - 1730. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. J. Nicklas, B. W.J.H. Penninx, A. S. Ryan, D. M. Berman, N. A. Lynch, and K. E. Dennis Visceral Adipose Tissue Cutoffs Associated With Metabolic Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease in Women Diabetes Care, May 1, 2003; 26(5): 1413 - 1420. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. P Stolk, R. Meijer, W. P. Mali, D. E Grobbee, and Y. van der Graaf Ultrasound measurements of intraabdominal fat estimate the metabolic syndrome better than do measurements of waist circumference Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2003; 77(4): 857 - 860. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. Stangl, G. Baumann, and K. Stangl Coronary atherogenic risk factors in women Eur. Heart J., November 2, 2002; 23(22): 1738 - 1752. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. E Lebovitz Review: Type 2 diabetes: how far have we come? The British Journal of Diabetes & Vascular Disease, November 1, 2002; 2(6): 446 - 449. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. Horejsi, R. Moller, T. R. Pieber, S. Wallner, K. Sudi, G. Reibnegger, and E. Tafeit Differences of Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue Topography Between Type-2 Diabetic Men and Healthy Controls Experimental Biology and Medicine, October 1, 2002; 227(9): 794 - 798. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. K. Brown A Waist Is a Terrible Thing to Mind : Central Obesity, the Metabolic Syndrome, and Sleep Apnea Hypopnea Syndrome Chest, September 1, 2002; 122(3): 774 - 778. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Liu Intake of Refined Carbohydrates and Whole Grain Foods in Relation to Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Coronary Heart Disease J. Am. Coll. Nutr., August 1, 2002; 21(4): 298 - 306. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. A. Price, W.-D. Li, and R. Kilker An X-Chromosome Scan Reveals a Locus for Fat Distribution in Chromosome Region Xp21-22 Diabetes, June 1, 2002; 51(6): 1989 - 1991. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Sans Watch the belly to protect the heart Eur. Heart J., May 1, 2002; 23(9): 687 - 689. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Cnop, M. J. Landchild, J. Vidal, P. J. Havel, N. G. Knowles, D. R. Carr, F. Wang, R. L. Hull, E. J. Boyko, B. M. Retzlaff, et al. The Concurrent Accumulation of Intra-Abdominal and Subcutaneous Fat Explains the Association Between Insulin Resistance and Plasma Leptin Concentrations : Distinct Metabolic Effects of Two Fat Compartments Diabetes, April 1, 2002; 51(4): 1005 - 1015. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. G. McTernan, L. A. Anderson, A. J. Anwar, M. C. Eggo, J. Crocker, A. H. Barnett, P. M. Stewart, and S. Kumar Glucocorticoid Regulation of P450 Aromatase Activity in Human Adipose Tissue: Gender and Site Differences J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2002; 87(3): 1327 - 1336. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. P. Sewter, F. Blows, A. Vidal-Puig, and S. O'Rahilly Regional Differences in the Response of Human Pre-Adipocytes to PPAR{gamma} and RXR{alpha} Agonists Diabetes, March 1, 2002; 51(3): 718 - 723. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. Rice, Y. C. Chagnon, L. Perusse, I. B. Borecki, O. Ukkola, T. Rankinen, J. Gagnon, A. S. Leon, J. S. Skinner, J. H. Wilmore, et al. A Genomewide Linkage Scan for Abdominal Subcutaneous and Visceral Fat in Black and White Families: The HERITAGE Family Study Diabetes, March 1, 2002; 51(3): 848 - 855. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Lofgren, J. Hoffstedt, M. Ryden, A. Thorne, C. Holm, H. Wahrenberg, and P. Arner Major Gender Differences in the Lipolytic Capacity of Abdominal Subcutaneous Fat Cells in Obesity Observed before and after Long-Term Weight Reduction J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., February 1, 2002; 87(2): 764 - 771. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Masuzaki, J. Paterson, H. Shinyama, N. M. Morton, J. J. Mullins, J. R. Seckl, and J. S. Flier A Transgenic Model of Visceral Obesity and the Metabolic Syndrome Science, December 7, 2001; 294(5549): 2166 - 2170. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Basu, R. Basu, P. Shah, A. Vella, R. A. Rizza, and M. D. Jensen Systemic and regional free fatty acid metabolism in type 2 diabetes Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, June 1, 2001; 280(6): E1000 - E1006. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. Taniguchi, Y. Nakai, M. Sakai, S. Yoshii, M. Hayashi, K. Nishitani, D. Hamanaka, S. Nakaishi, T. Kamamoto, I. Nagata, et al. Relationship of Regional Adiposity to Insulin Resistance in Nonobese Japanese Type 2 Diabetic Patients Diabetes Care, May 1, 2001; 24(5): 966 - 968. [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. L Sievenpiper, D. J. Jenkins, R. G Josse, L. A Leiter, and V. Vuksan Simple skinfold-thickness measurements complement conventional anthropometric assessments in predicting glucose tolerance Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2001; 73(3): 567 - 573. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. N. Thomas, B. Tomlinson, and J. A. J. H. Critchley Modulation of Blood Pressure and Obesity With the Dopamine D2 Receptor Gene TaqI Polymorphism Hypertension, August 1, 2000; 36(2): 177 - 182. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. E. Kelley, F. L. Thaete, F. Troost, T. Huwe, and B. H. Goodpaster Subdivisions of subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue and insulin resistance Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, May 1, 2000; 278(5): E941 - E948. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Q. Purnell, S. E. Kahn, J. J. Albers, D. N. Nevin, J. D. Brunzell, and R. S. Schwartz Effect of Weight Loss with Reduction of Intra-Abdominal Fat on Lipid Metabolism in Older Men J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2000; 85(3): 977 - 982. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Tatsukawa, M. Kurokawa, Y. Tamari, H. Yoshimatsu, and T. Sakata Regional Fat Deposition in the Legs Is Useful as a Presumptive Marker of Antiatherogenesity in Japanese Experimental Biology and Medicine, February 1, 2000; 223(2): 156 - 162. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 P. Mauriège, P. Imbeault, D. Langin, M. Lacaille, N. Alméras, A. Tremblay, and J. P. Després Regional and gender variations in adipose tissue lipolysis in response to weight loss J. Lipid Res., September 1, 1999; 40(9): 1559 - 1571. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. S Freedman, M. K Serdula, S. R Srinivasan, and G. S Berenson Relation of circumferences and skinfold thicknesses to lipid and insulin concentrations in children and adolescents: the Bogalusa Heart Study Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 1999; 69(2): 308 - 317. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Mauriège, M. Brochu, D. Prud’homme, A. Tremblay, A. Nadeau, S. Lemieux, and J. P. Després Is Visceral Adiposity a Significant Correlate of Subcutaneous Adipose Cell Lipolysis in Men? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., February 1, 1999; 84(2): 736 - 742. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Mekki, M. A. Christofilis, M. Charbonnier, C. Atlan-Gepner, C. Defoort, C. Juhel, P. Borel, H. Portugal, A. M. Pauli, B. Vialettes, et al. Influence of Obesity and Body Fat Distribution on Postprandial Lipemia and Triglyceride-Rich Lipoproteins in Adult Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 1999; 84(1): 184 - 191. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K. M. Rexrode, V. J. Carey, C. H. Hennekens, E. E. Walters, G. A. Colditz, M. J. Stampfer, W. C. Willett, and J. E. Manson Abdominal Adiposity and Coronary Heart Disease in Women JAMA, December 2, 1998; 280(21): 1843 - 1848. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 B. EMMERSON Hyperlipidaemia in hyperuricaemia and gout Ann Rheum Dis, September 1, 1998; 57(9): 509 - 510. [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J.-F. Gautier, A. Mourier, E. de Kerviler, A. Tarentola, A. X. Bigard, J.-M. Villette, C. Y. Guezennec, and G. Cathelineau Evaluation of Abdominal Fat Distribution in Noninsulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus: Relationship to Insulin Resistance J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 1998; 83(4): 1306 - 1311. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Henry, D.A. Tregouet, M.C. Alessi, M.F. Aillaud, S. Visvikis, G. Siest, L. Tiret, and I. Juhan-Vague Metabolic Determinants Are Much More Important Than Genetic Polymorphisms in Determining the PAI-1 Activity and Antigen Plasma Concentrations : A Family Study With Part of the Stanislas Cohort Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., January 1, 1998; 18(1): 84 - 91. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. B. Phillips, B. H. Pinkernell, and T.-Y. Jing Relationship Between Serum Sex Hormones and Coronary Artery Disease in Postmenopausal Women Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol., April 1, 1997; 17(4): 695 - 701. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Bose Generalised obesity and regional adiposity in adult White and migrant Muslim males from Pakistan in Peterborough The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, June 1, 1996; 116(3): 161 - 167. [Abstract]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Bose Non-Insulin-Dependent (Type II) Diabetes Mellitus and Obesity in Asians in UK - Scope for Future Studies The Journal of the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health, December 1, 1992; 112(6): 291 - 293.
|
|
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
