|
|
||||||||
COMMENTARY |
1 From the Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA (GAB), and the Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill (SJN and BMP).
Obesity is a major epidemic, but its causes are still unclear. In this article, we investigate the relation between the intake of high-fructose corn syrup (HFCS) and the development of obesity. We analyzed food consumption patterns by using US Department of Agriculture food consumption tables from 1967 to 2000. The consumption of HFCS increased > 1000% between 1970 and 1990, far exceeding the changes in intake of any other food or food group. HFCS now represents > 40% of caloric sweeteners added to foods and beverages and is the sole caloric sweetener in soft drinks in the United States. Our most conservative estimate of the consumption of HFCS indicates a daily average of 132 kcal for all Americans aged
2 y, and the top 20% of consumers of caloric sweeteners ingest 316 kcal from HFCS/d. The increased use of HFCS in the United States mirrors the rapid increase in obesity. The digestion, absorption, and metabolism of fructose differ from those of glucose. Hepatic metabolism of fructose favors de novo lipogenesis. In addition, unlike glucose, fructose does not stimulate insulin secretion or enhance leptin production. Because insulin and leptin act as key afferent signals in the regulation of food intake and body weight, this suggests that dietary fructose may contribute to increased energy intake and weight gain. Furthermore, calorically sweetened beverages may enhance caloric overconsumption. Thus, the increase in consumption of HFCS has a temporal relation to the epidemic of obesity, and the overconsumption of HFCS in calorically sweetened beverages may play a role in the epidemic of obesity.
Key Words: Epidemiology food intake obesity artificial sweeteners fructose
This article has been cited by other articles:
![]() |
B. E. Lacy, K. Weiser, and R. De Lee Review: The treatment of irritable bowel syndrome Therapeutic Advances in Gastroenterology, July 1, 2009; 2(4): 221 - 238. [Abstract] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K.-A. Le, M. Ith, R. Kreis, D. Faeh, M. Bortolotti, C. Tran, C. Boesch, and L. Tappy Fructose overconsumption causes dyslipidemia and ectopic lipid deposition in healthy subjects with and without a family history of type 2 diabetes Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2009; 89(6): 1760 - 1765. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
H. R. Light, E. Tsanzi, J. Gigliotti, K. Morgan, and J. C. Tou The Type of Caloric Sweetener Added to Water Influences Weight Gain, Fat Mass, and Reproduction in Growing Sprague-Dawley Female Rats Experimental Biology and Medicine, June 1, 2009; 234(6): 651 - 661. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
G. Livesey Fructose Ingestion: Dose-Dependent Responses in Health Research J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1246S - 1252S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
J. S. White Misconceptions about High-Fructose Corn Syrup: Is It Uniquely Responsible for Obesity, Reactive Dicarbonyl Compounds, and Advanced Glycation Endproducts? J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1219S - 1227S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
T. H. Moran Fructose and Satiety J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1253S - 1256S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
J. P. Bantle Dietary Fructose and Metabolic Syndrome and Diabetes J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1263S - 1268S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
T. J. Angelopoulos, J. Lowndes, L. Zukley, K. J. Melanson, V. Nguyen, A. Huffman, and J. M. Rippe The Effect of High-Fructose Corn Syrup Consumption on Triglycerides and Uric Acid J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1242S - 1245S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
B. P. Marriott, N. Cole, and E. Lee National Estimates of Dietary Fructose Intake Increased from 1977 to 2004 in the United States J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1228S - 1235S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. T. Borra and A. Bouchoux Effects of Science and the Media on Consumer Perceptions about Dietary Sugars J. Nutr., June 1, 2009; 139(6): 1214S - 1218S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K. L. Teff, J. Grudziak, R. R. Townsend, T. N. Dunn, R. W. Grant, S. H. Adams, N. L. Keim, B. P. Cummings, K. L. Stanhope, and P. J. Havel Endocrine and Metabolic Effects of Consuming Fructose- and Glucose-Sweetened Beverages with Meals in Obese Men and Women: Influence of Insulin Resistance on Plasma Triglyceride Responses J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2009; 94(5): 1562 - 1569. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
A. A. Bremer, P. Auinger, and R. S. Byrd Relationship Between Insulin Resistance-Associated Metabolic Parameters and Anthropometric Measurements With Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Intake and Physical Activity Levels in US Adolescents: Findings From the 1999-2004 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, April 1, 2009; 163(4): 328 - 335. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
P. Cirillo, M. S. Gersch, W. Mu, P. M. Scherer, K. M. Kim, L. Gesualdo, G. N. Henderson, R. J. Johnson, and Y. Y. Sautin Ketohexokinase-Dependent Metabolism of Fructose Induces Proinflammatory Mediators in Proximal Tubular Cells J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., March 1, 2009; 20(3): 545 - 553. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
M. E. Choi The Not-so-Sweet Side of Fructose J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., March 1, 2009; 20(3): 457 - 459. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
P. J. Scarpace and Y. Zhang Leptin resistance: a prediposing factor for diet-induced obesity Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, March 1, 2009; 296(3): R493 - R500. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
R. J. Johnson, S. E. Perez-Pozo, Y. Y. Sautin, J. Manitius, L. G. Sanchez-Lozada, D. I. Feig, M. Shafiu, M. Segal, R. J. Glassock, M. Shimada, et al. Hypothesis: Could Excessive Fructose Intake and Uric Acid Cause Type 2 Diabetes? Endocr. Rev., February 1, 2009; 30(1): 96 - 116. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
U. Seidler, A. Singh, M. Chen, A. Cinar, O. Bachmann, W. Zheng, J. Wang, S. Yeruva, and B. Riederer Knockout mouse models for intestinal electrolyte transporters and regulatory PDZ adaptors: new insights into cystic fibrosis, secretory diarrhoea and fructose-induced hypertension Exp Physiol, February 1, 2009; 94(2): 175 - 179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
V. S Malik, W. C Willett, and F. B Hu Sugar-sweetened beverages and BMI in children and adolescents: reanalyses of a meta-analysis Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2009; 89(1): 438 - 439. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
V. Fulgoni III High-fructose corn syrup: everything you wanted to know, but were afraid to ask Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1715S - 1715S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
J. S White Straight talk about high-fructose corn syrup: what it is and what it ain't Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1716S - 1721S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K. J Duffey and B. M Popkin High-fructose corn syrup: is this what's for dinner? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1722S - 1732S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K. L Stanhope and P. J Havel Endocrine and metabolic effects of consuming beverages sweetened with fructose, glucose, sucrose, or high-fructose corn syrup Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1733S - 1737S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K. J Melanson, T. J Angelopoulos, V. Nguyen, L. Zukley, J. Lowndes, and J. M Rippe High-fructose corn syrup, energy intake, and appetite regulation Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1738S - 1744S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
C. H Halsted Perspectives on obesity and sweeteners, folic acid fortification and vitamin D requirements Fam. Pract., December 1, 2008; 25(suppl_1): i44 - i49. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. H. Cha, M. Wolfgang, Y. Tokutake, S. Chohnan, and M. D. Lane Differential effects of central fructose and glucose on hypothalamic malonyl-CoA and food intake PNAS, November 4, 2008; 105(44): 16871 - 16875. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
G. Livesey and R. Taylor Fructose consumption and consequences for glycation, plasma triacylglycerol, and body weight: meta-analyses and meta-regression models of intervention studies Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2008; 88(5): 1419 - 1437. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
A. Shapiro, W. Mu, C. Roncal, K.-Y. Cheng, R. J. Johnson, and P. J. Scarpace Fructose-induced leptin resistance exacerbates weight gain in response to subsequent high-fat feeding Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2008; 295(5): R1370 - R1375. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
J. R. Vasselli Fructose-induced leptin resistance: discovery of an unsuspected form of the phenomenon and its significance. Focus on "Fructose-induced leptin resistance exacerbates weight gain in response to subsequent high-fat feeding," by Shapiro et al. Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, November 1, 2008; 295(5): R1365 - R1369. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
C. E. Smith, K. L. Tucker, N. Yiannakouris, B. Garcia-Bailo, J. Mattei, C.-Q. Lai, L. D. Parnell, and J. M. Ordovas Perilipin Polymorphism Interacts with Dietary Carbohydrates to Modulate Anthropometric Traits in Hispanics of Caribbean Origin J. Nutr., October 1, 2008; 138(10): 1852 - 1858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
N. Anderson and J. Borlak Molecular Mechanisms and Therapeutic Targets in Steatosis and Steatohepatitis Pharmacol. Rev., September 1, 2008; 60(3): 311 - 357. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
O. Glushakova, T. Kosugi, C. Roncal, W. Mu, M. Heinig, P. Cirillo, L. G. Sanchez-Lozada, R. J. Johnson, and T. Nakagawa Fructose Induces the Inflammatory Molecule ICAM-1 in Endothelial Cells J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., September 1, 2008; 19(9): 1712 - 1720. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
A. Brandstatter, S. Kiechl, B. Kollerits, S. C. Hunt, I. M. Heid, S. Coassin, J. Willeit, T. D. Adams, T. Illig, P. N. Hopkins, et al. Sex-Specific Association of the Putative Fructose Transporter SLC2A9 Variants With Uric Acid Levels Is Modified by BMI Diabetes Care, August 1, 2008; 31(8): 1662 - 1667. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
M. N. Feinglos and S. E. Totten Are You What You Eat, or How Much You Eat?: The Case of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Arch Intern Med, July 28, 2008; 168(14): 1485 - 1486. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
J. R. Palmer, D. A. Boggs, S. Krishnan, F. B. Hu, M. Singer, and L. Rosenberg Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in African American Women Arch Intern Med, July 28, 2008; 168(14): 1487 - 1492. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. K. Kumanyika, E. Obarzanek, N. Stettler, R. Bell, A. E. Field, S. P. Fortmann, B. A. Franklin, M. W. Gillman, C. E. Lewis, W. C. Poston II, et al. Population-Based Prevention of Obesity: The Need for Comprehensive Promotion of Healthful Eating, Physical Activity, and Energy Balance: A Scientific Statement From American Heart Association Council on Epidemiology and Prevention, Interdisciplinary Committee for Prevention (Formerly the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science) Circulation, July 22, 2008; 118(4): 428 - 464. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. H. Adams, K. L. Stanhope, R. W. Grant, B. P. Cummings, and P. J. Havel Metabolic and Endocrine Profiles in Response to Systemic Infusion of Fructose and Glucose in Rhesus Macaques Endocrinology, June 1, 2008; 149(6): 3002 - 3008. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K. L Stanhope, S. C Griffen, B. R Bair, M. M Swarbrick, N. L Keim, and P. J Havel Twenty-four-hour endocrine and metabolic profiles following consumption of high-fructose corn syrup-, sucrose-, fructose-, and glucose-sweetened beverages with meals Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2008; 87(5): 1194 - 1203. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. Kirchner, A. Muduli, D. Casirola, K. Prum, V. Douard, and R. P Ferraris Luminal fructose inhibits rat intestinal sodium-phosphate cotransporter gene expression and phosphate uptake Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2008; 87(4): 1028 - 1038. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
G. A Bray Reply to RJ Hine and JS White Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2008; 87(4): 1064 - 1065. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
J. S White No unique role for fructose sweeteners in obesity or cardiorenal disease Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2008; 87(4): 1062 - 1063. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
L. G. Sanchez-Lozada, E. Tapia, P. Bautista-Garcia, V. Soto, C. Avila-Casado, I. P. Vega-Campos, T. Nakagawa, L. Zhao, M. Franco, and R. J. Johnson Effects of febuxostat on metabolic and renal alterations in rats with fructose-induced metabolic syndrome Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, April 1, 2008; 294(4): F710 - F718. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
C. M. Brown, A. G. Dulloo, G. Yepuri, and J.-P. Montani Fructose ingestion acutely elevates blood pressure in healthy young humans Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, March 1, 2008; 294(3): R730 - R737. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
M. Underwood Sugary drinks, fruit, and increased risk of gout BMJ, February 9, 2008; 336(7639): 285 - 286. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
H. K Choi and G. Curhan Soft drinks, fructose consumption, and the risk of gout in men: prospective cohort study BMJ, February 9, 2008; 336(7639): 309 - 312. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. Harrington The Role of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption in Adolescent Obesity: A Review of the Literature The Journal of School Nursing, February 1, 2008; 24(1): 3 - 12. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
M. C. Cave, R. T. Hurt, T. H. Frazier, P. J. Matheson, R. N. Garrison, C. J. McClain, and S. A. McClave Obesity, Inflammation, and the Potential Application of Pharmaconutrition Nutr Clin Pract, February 1, 2008; 23(1): 16 - 34. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
D. Cao, H. Lu, T. L. Lewis, and L. Li Intake of Sucrose-sweetened Water Induces Insulin Resistance and Exacerbates Memory Deficits and Amyloidosis in a Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer Disease J. Biol. Chem., December 14, 2007; 282(50): 36275 - 36282. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
G H. Anderson Much ado about high-fructose corn syrup in beverages: the meat of the matter Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2007; 86(6): 1577 - 1578. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. Soenen and M. S Westerterp-Plantenga No differences in satiety or energy intake after high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, or milk preloads Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2007; 86(6): 1586 - 1594. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
T. Akhavan and G H. Anderson Effects of glucose-to-fructose ratios in solutions on subjective satiety, food intake, and satiety hormones in young men Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2007; 86(5): 1354 - 1363. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
K. Yasuda, R. Maiorano, R. M. Welch, D. D. Miller, and X. G. Lei Cecum Is the Major Degradation Site of Ingested Inulin in Young Pigs J. Nutr., November 1, 2007; 137(11): 2399 - 2404. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
G. A Bray How bad is fructose? Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 895 - 896. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
R. J Johnson, M. S Segal, Y. Sautin, T. Nakagawa, D. I Feig, D.-H. Kang, M. S Gersch, S. Benner, and L. G Sanchez-Lozada Potential role of sugar (fructose) in the epidemic of hypertension, obesity and the metabolic syndrome, diabetes, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 899 - 906. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
I. Aeberli, M. B Zimmermann, L. Molinari, R. Lehmann, D. l'Allemand, G. A Spinas, and K. Berneis Fructose intake is a predictor of LDL particle size in overweight schoolchildren Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 1174 - 1178. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
E. G. Neilson The Fructose Nation J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., October 1, 2007; 18(10): 2619 - 2621. [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
S. Reungjui, C. A. Roncal, W. Mu, T. R. Srinivas, D. Sirivongs, R. J. Johnson, and T. Nakagawa Thiazide Diuretics Exacerbate Fructose-Induced Metabolic Syndrome J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., October 1, 2007; 18(10): 2724 - 2731. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
M. S. Gersch, W. Mu, P. Cirillo, S. Reungjui, L. Zhang, C. Roncal, Y. Y. Sautin, R. J. Johnson, and T. Nakagawa Fructose, but not dextrose, accelerates the progression of chronic kidney disease Am J Physiol Renal Physiol, October 1, 2007; 293(4): F1256 - F1261. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
M. Yoshida, N. M. McKeown, G. Rogers, J. B. Meigs, E. Saltzman, R. D'Agostino, and P. F. Jacques Surrogate Markers of Insulin Resistance Are Associated with Consumption of Sugar-Sweetened Drinks and Fruit Juice in Middle and Older-Aged Adults J. Nutr., September 1, 2007; 137(9): 2121 - 2127. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
X. Gao, L. Qi, N. Qiao, H. K. Choi, G. Curhan, K. L. Tucker, and A. Ascherio Intake of Added Sugar and Sugar-Sweetened Drink and Serum Uric Acid Concentration in US Men and Women Hypertension, August 1, 2007; 50(2): 306 - 312. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF] |
||||
![]() |
R. Dhingra, L. Sullivan, P. F. Jacques, T. J. Wang, C. S. Fox, J. B. Meigs, R. B. D'Agostino, J. M. Gaziano, and R. S. Vasan Soft Drink Consumption and Risk of Developing Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and the Metabolic Syndrome in Middle-Aged Adults in the Community Circulation, July 31, 2007; 116(5): 480 - 488. |