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American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 86, No. 5, 1399-1404, November 2007
© 2007 American Society for Nutrition

ORIGINAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATION

Associations of diet, supplement use, and ultraviolet B radiation exposure with vitamin D status in Swedish women during winter1,2

Ann Burgaz, Agneta Åkesson, Annette Öster, Karl Michaëlsson and Alicja Wolk

1 From the Division of Nutritional Epidemiology, Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden (AB, AÅ, AÖ, and AW), and the Department of Surgical Sciences, Section of Orthopaedics, and Uppsala Clinical Research Center, University Hospital, Uppsala, Sweden (KM)

Background: Vitamin D is produced endogenously after sun exposure but can also be obtained from natural food sources, food fortification, and dietary supplements.

Objective: We aimed to determine the vitamin D status of women (61–86 y old) living in central Sweden (latitude 60°) during winter and its relation with vitamin D intake and exposure to ultraviolet B radiation.

Design: In a cross-sectional study, we assessed the vitamin D status (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D]) of 116 women by using an enzyme immunoassay. The women completed questionnaires covering food habits, use of dietary supplements, and sun-related behavior.

Results: In a multiple linear regression model, the main determinants of serum 25(OH)D concentrations (x ± SD: 69 ± 23 mmol/L) were dietary vitamin D (6.0 ± 1.8 µg/d), travel to a sunny location during winter within the previous 6 mo (26%), and the use of dietary supplements (16%). There was no association between serum 25(OH)D status during the winter and age, time spent outdoors, the use of sunscreen, or skin type. Serum 25(OH)D concentrations increased by 25.5 nmol/L with 2–3 servings (130 g/wk) fatty fish/wk, by 6.2 nmol/L with the daily intake of 300 g vitamin D–fortified reduced-fat dairy products, by 11.0 nmol/L with regular use of vitamin D supplements, and by 14.5 nmol/L with a sun vacation during winter. Among nonsupplement users without a wintertime sun vacation, 2–3 servings fatty fish/wk increased serum vitamin D concentrations by 45%.

Conclusion: Fatty fish, vitamin D–fortified reduced-fat dairy products, regular supplement use, and taking a sun vacation are important predictors for serum concentrations of 25(OH)D during winter at a latitude of 60°.

Key Words: Vitamin D status • ultraviolet B radiation exposure • 25-hydroxyvitamin D • 25(OH)D • vitamin D intake • dietary vitamin D • vitamin D fortification • vitamin D supplements






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