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American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 76, No. 1, 5-56, 2002
© 2002 American Society for Clinical Nutrition

International table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 20021,2

Kaye Foster-Powell, Susanna HA Holt and Janette C Brand-Miller

1 From the Human Nutrition Unit, School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences, University of Sydney, Australia.

2 Reprints not available. Address correspondence to JC Brand-Miller, Human Nutrition Unit, School of Molecular and Microbial Biosciences (G08), University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia. E-mail: j.brandmiller{at}biochem.usyd.edu.au.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
 REFERENCES
 REFERENCES 
 
Reliable tables of glycemic index (GI) compiled from the scientific literature are instrumental in improving the quality of research examining the relation between GI, glycemic load, and health. The GI has proven to be a more useful nutritional concept than is the chemical classification of carbohydrate (as simple or complex, as sugars or starches, or as available or unavailable), permitting new insights into the relation between the physiologic effects of carbohydrate-rich foods and health. Several prospective observational studies have shown that the chronic consumption of a diet with a high glycemic load (GI x dietary carbohydrate content) is independently associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and certain cancers. This revised table contains almost 3 times the number of foods listed in the original table (first published in this Journal in 1995) and contains nearly 1300 data entries derived from published and unpublished verified sources, representing > 750 different types of foods tested with the use of standard methods. The revised table also lists the glycemic load associated with the consumption of specified serving sizes of different foods.

Key Words: Glycemic index • carbohydrates • diabetes • glycemic load


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
 REFERENCES
 REFERENCES 
 
Twenty years have passed since the first index of the relative glycemic effects of carbohydrate exchanges from 51 foods was published by Jenkins et al (1) in this Journal. Per gram of carbohydrate, foods with a high glycemic index (GI) produce a higher peak in postprandial blood glucose and a greater overall blood glucose response during the first 2 h after consumption than do foods with a low GI. Despite controversial beginnings, the GI is now widely recognized as a reliable, physiologically based classification of foods according to their postprandial glycemic effect.

In 1997 a committee of experts was brought together by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and the World Health Organization (WHO) to review the available research evidence regarding the importance of carbohydrates in human nutrition and health (2). The committee endorsed the use of the GI method for classifying carbohydrate-rich foods and recommended that the GI values of foods be used in conjunction with information about food composition to guide food choices. To promote good health, the committee advocated the consumption of a high-carbohydrate diet (≥ 55% of energy from carbohydrate), with the bulk of carbohydrate-containing foods being rich in nonstarch polysaccharides with a low GI. In Australia, official dietary guidelines for healthy elderly people specifically recommend the consumption of low-GI cereal foods for good health (3), and a GI trademark certification program is in place to put GI values on food labels as a means of helping consumers to select low-GI foods (4). Commercial GI testing of foods for the food industry is currently conducted by many laboratories around the world, including our own. Many recent popular diet books contain extensive lists of the GI values of individual foods or advocate the consumption of low-GI, carbohydrate-rich foods for weight control and good health (5).

Reliable tables of GI compiled from the scientific literature are instrumental in improving the quality of research examining the relation between the dietary glycemic effect and health. The first edition of International Tables of Glycemic Index, published in this Journal in 1995 with 565 entries (6), has been cited as a reference in many scientific papers. In particular, these tables provided the basis for the GI to be used a dietary epidemiologic tool, allowing novel comparisons of the effects of different carbohydrates on disease risk, separate from the traditional classification of carbohydrates into starches and sugars. Several large-scale, observational studies from Harvard University (Cambridge, MA) indicate that the long-term consumption of a diet with a high glycemic load (GL; GI x dietary carbohydrate content) is a significant independent predictor of the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (7, 8) and cardiovascular disease (9). More recently, evidence has been accumulating that a low-GI diet might also protect against the development of obesity (10, 11), colon cancer (12), and breast cancer (13). The EURODIAB (Europe and Diabetes) study, involving >3000 subjects with type 1 diabetes in 31 clinics throughout Europe, showed that the GI rating of self-selected diets was independently related to blood concentrations of glycated hemoglobin in men and women (14) and to waist circumference in men (15). In addition, higher blood HDL-cholesterol concentrations were observed in patients consuming low-GI diets from the northern, eastern, and western European centers participating in the study (15). Indeed, several studies have shown that the dietary GI is a good predictor of HDL concentrations in the healthy population, whereas the amount and type of fat are not (16–18). Thus, the GI has proven to be a more useful nutritional concept than is the chemical classification of carbohydrate (as simple or complex, as sugars or starches, or as available or unavailable), providing new insights into the relation between foods and health.

In parallel with these advances have been studies documenting the importance of postprandial glycemia per se for all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease mortality in healthy populations (19). For example, in the Hoorn study there was a significant association between the 8-y risk of cardiovascular death and 2-h postload blood glucose concentrations in subjects with normal fasting glucose concentrations, even after adjustment for known risk factors (20). Multiple mechanisms are probably involved. Recurring, excessive postprandial glycemia could decrease blood HDL-cholesterol concentrations, increase triglyceridemia, and also be directly toxic by increasing protein glycation, generating oxidative stress, and causing transient hypercoagulation and impaired endothelial function (21, 22). If postprandial glycemia is indeed important, then dietary treatment for the prevention or management of chronic diseases must consider both the amount and type of carbohydrate consumed.

An issue that is still being debated, particularly within the United States, is whether the GI has practical applications for the clinical treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Three intervention studies in adults and children with type 1 diabetes showed that low-GI diets improve glycated hemoglobin concentrations (23–25). In subjects with cardiovascular disease, low-GI diets were shown to be associated with improvements in insulin sensitivity and blood lipid concentrations (23, 26). In addition, evidence from both short-term and long-term studies in animals and humans indicates that low-GI foods may be useful for weight control. Laboratory studies examining the short-term satiating effects of foods have shown that low-GI foods are relatively more satiating than are their high-GI counterparts (10). Compared with low-GI meals, high-GI meals induce a greater rise and fall in blood glucose and a greater rise in blood insulin, leading to lower concentrations of the body’s 2 main fuels (blood glucose and fatty acids) in the immediate postabsorptive period. The reduced availability of metabolic fuels may act as a signal to stimulate eating (11). It is also important to emphasize that many low-GI foods are relatively less refined than are their high-GI counterparts and are more difficult to consume. The lower energy density and palatability of these foods are important determinants of their greater satiating capacity. In obese children, the ad libitum consumption of a low-GI diet has been associated with greater reductions in body mass indexes (27). However, some experts have raised concerns about the difficulties of putting advice about GI values into practice and of the potentially adverse effects on food choice and fat intake. For this reason, the American Diabetes Association does not recommend the use of GI values for dietary counseling. However, the European Association for the Study of Diabetes (28), the Canadian Diabetes Association (29), and the Dietitians Association of Australia (30) all recommend high-fiber, low-GI foods for individuals with diabetes as a means of improving postprandial glycemia and weight control.


   REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF GI VALUES
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 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
 REFERENCES
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For all clinical and research applications, reliable GI values are needed. Therefore, the purpose of this revised table is to bring together all the relevant data published between 1981 and 2001 (Table 1Go). Unpublished figures from our laboratory and those from others have also been included when the quality of the data could be verified on the basis of the method used [ie, the method is in line with the principles advocated by the FAO/WHO Expert Consultation (2)]. In total, the new table contains nearly 1300 separate entries, representing > 750 different types of foods. This number of foods represents an increase of almost 250% over the number provided when the international tables were first published in 1995. As in the original tables, the GI value for each food (with either glucose or white bread used as the reference food), the type and number of subjects tested, the reference food and time period used, and the published source of the data are provided. For many foods there are ≥ 2 published values; therefore, the mean (± SEM) GIs were calculated and are listed underneath the data for the individual foods. Thus, the user can appreciate the variation for any one food and, if possible, use the GI value for the food found in their country. It is hoped that the table will reduce unnecessary repetition in the testing of individual foods and facilitate wider research and application of the GI. In some cases, the GI values for different varieties of the same type of food listed in the table indicate the glycemic-lowering effects of different ingredients and food processing methods (eg, porridges made from rolled grains of different thicknesses and breads with different proportions of whole grains). This information could assist food manufacturers to develop a greater range of low-GI processed foods.


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  		TABLE 1 . International table of glycemic index (GI) and glycemic load (GL) values: 20021
 

   WHY DO GI VALUES FOR THE SAME TYPES OF FOODS SOMETIMES VARY?
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 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
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Many people have raised concerns about the variation in published GI values for apparently similar foods. This variation may reflect both methodologic factors and true differences in the physical and chemical characteristics of the foods. One possibility is that 2 similar foods may have different ingredients or may have been processed with a different method, resulting in significant differences in the rate of carbohydrate digestion and hence the GI value. Two different brands of the same type of food, such as a plain cookie, may look and taste almost the same, but differences in the type of flour used, in the moisture content, and in the cooking time can result in differences in the degree of starch gelatinization and consequently the GI values. In addition, it must be remembered that the GI values listed in the table for commercially available processed foods may change over time if food manufacturers make changes in the ingredients or processing methods used.

Another reason GI values for apparently similar foods vary is that different testing methods are used in different parts of the world. Differences in testing methods include the use of different types of blood samples (capillary or venous), different experimental time periods, and different portions of foods (50 g of total rather than of available carbohydrate). Recently, 7 experienced GI testing laboratories around the world participated in a study to determine the degree of variation in GI values when the same centrally distributed foods were tested according to the laboratories’ normal in-house testing procedures (31). The results showed that the 5 laboratories that used finger-prick capillary blood samples to measure changes in postprandial glycemia obtained similar GI values for the same foods and less intersubject variation. Although capillary and venous blood glucose values have been shown to be highly correlated, it appears that capillary blood samples may be preferable to venous blood samples for reliable GI testing. After the consumption of food, glucose concentrations change to a greater degree in capillary blood samples than in venous blood samples. Therefore, capillary blood may be a more relevant indicator of the physiologic consequences of high-GI foods.

Although it is clear that GI values are generally reproducible from place to place, there are some instances of wide variation for the same food. Rice, for example, shows a large range of GI values, but this variation is due to inherent botanical differences in rice from country to country rather than to methodologic differences. Differences in the amylose content could explain much of the variation in the GI values of rice (and other foods) because amylose is digested more slowly than is amylopectin starch (32). GI values for rice cannot be reliably predicted on the basis of the size of the grain (short or long grain) or the type of cooking method. Rice is obviously one type of food that needs to be tested brand by brand locally. Carrots are another example of a food with a wide variation in published GI values; the oldest study showed a GI of 92 ± 20 and the latest study a GI of 32 ± 5. However, the results of an examination of the SEs (20 compared with 5) and the number of subjects tested (5 compared with 8) suggest that the latest value for carrots is more reliable, although differences in nutrient content and preparation methods contributed somewhat to this variation.

An important reason GI values for similar foods sometimes vary between laboratories is because of the method used for determining the carbohydrate content of the test foods. GI testing requires that portions of both the reference foods and test foods contain the same amount of available carbohydrate, typically 50 or 25 g. The available or glycemic carbohydrate fraction in foods, which is available for absorption in the small intestine, is measured as the sum of starch and sugars and does not include resistant starch. Most researchers rely on food-composition tables or food manufacturers’ data, whereas others directly measure the starch and sugar contents of the foods.

This difference in the accuracy of measurements of the carbohydrate content might explain some of the variation in reported GI values for fruit and potatoes and other vegetables. Food labels may or may not include the dietary fiber content of the food in the total carbohydrate value, leading to confusion that can markedly affect GI values, especially those for high-fiber foods. Consequently, researchers should obtain accurate laboratory measurements of the available carbohydrate content of foods as an essential preliminary step in GI testing. The available carbohydrate portion of test and reference foods should not include resistant starch, but, in practice, this can be difficult to ensure because resistant starch is difficult to measure. There is also difficulty in determining the degree of availability of novel carbohydrates, such as sugar alcohols, which are incompletely absorbed at relatively high doses.

Measuring the rate at which carbohydrates in foods are digested in vitro has been suggested as a cheaper and less time-consuming method for predicting the GI values of foods (33). However, only a few foods have been subjected to both in vitro and in vivo testing, and it is not yet known whether the in vitro method is a reliable indication of the in vivo postprandial glycemic effects of all types of foods. It is possible that some factors that significantly affect glycemia in vivo, such as the rate of gastric emptying, will not change the rate of carbohydrate digestion in vitro. For example, high osmolality and high acidity or soluble fiber slow down the gastric emptying rate and reduce glycemia in vivo, but they may not alter the rate of carbohydrate digestion in vitro. It is difficult to mimic all of the human digestive processes in a test tube. In fact, research results from our laboratory have shown that GI values measured in vivo can be significantly different for the same foods measured in vitro. Until we know more about the validity of in vitro methods, it is not recommended that they be used in clinical or epidemiologic research applications or for food labeling purposes because of the potential for large over- or underestimates of true GI values.


   GUIDE TO THE USE OF THE REVISED TABLE
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
GLYCEMIC LOAD
 REFERENCES
 REFERENCES 
 
The GI values listed in the revised table represent high-quality data published in refereed journals or unpublished values generated by Sydney University’s Glycemic Index Research Service, often as a result of contract research by industry. The foods have been described as unambiguously as possible by using descriptive data about the food given in the original publication. In some cases, descriptive details were extensive, including the species or variety of plant food, the brand name of the processed food, and the preparation and cooking methods. In other cases, the only description was a single word (eg, potatoes or apple). If the cooking method and cooking time were stated in the original reference, the details are given. The user should bear in mind that countries often have different names for the same food product or, alternatively, the same name for different items. For example, Kellogg’s Special K breakfast cereal is a very different product in North America (Kellogg Canada Inc) than in Australia (Kellogg, Sydney, Australia), each of which has a different GI value. Similarly, food names may mean different things in different countries. For example, biscuits, muffins, and scones have different meanings in North America and in Europe. The terms used in the revised table have been selected to be as internationally relevant as possible.

Some research laboratories continue to use white bread as the reference food for measuring GI values, whereas others use glucose (dextrose); therefore, 2 GI values are given for each food. The first value is the GI with glucose as the reference food (GI value for glucose = 100; GI value for white bread = 70), and the second value is the GI for the same food with white bread as the reference food (GI value for white bread = 100; GI value for glucose = 143). When bread was the reference food used in the original study, the GI value for the food was multiplied by 0.7 to obtain the GI value with glucose as the reference food. The table lists the reference food that was originally used to measure the GI value of each food.

The foods in the table are separated into the following food groups: bakery products, beverages, breads, breakfast cereals and related products, breakfast cereal bars, cereal grains, cookies, crackers, dairy products and alternatives, fruit and fruit products, infant formula and weaning foods, legumes and nuts, meal-replacement products, mixed meals and convenience foods, nutritional-support products, pasta and noodles, snack foods and confectionery, sports bars, soups, sugars and sugar alcohols, vegetables (including roots and tubers), and indigenous or traditional foods of different ethnic groups. Within each section, foods are arranged in alphabetical order by common name. This classification of the foods was made on a practical rather than a scientific basis. There are no GI values given for meat, poultry, fish, avocados, salad vegetables, cheese, or eggs because these foods contain little or no carbohydrate and it would be exceedingly difficult for people to consume a portion of the foods containing 50 g or even 25 g of available carbohydrate. Even in large amounts, these foods when eaten alone are not likely to induce a significant rise in blood glucose.


   GLYCEMIC LOAD
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
REFERENCES
 REFERENCES 
 
Both the quantity and quality (ie, nature or source) of carbohydrate influence the glycemic response. By definition, the GI compares equal quantities of carbohydrate and provides a measure of carbohydrate quality but not quantity. In 1997 the concept of GL was introduced by researchers at Harvard University to quantify the overall glycemic effect of a portion of food (7–9). Thus, the GL of a typical serving of food is the product of the amount of available carbohydrate in that serving and the GI of the food. The higher the GL, the greater the expected elevation in blood glucose and in the insulinogenic effect of the food. The long-term consumption of a diet with a relatively high GL (adjusted for total energy) is associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and coronary heart disease (9).

In the revised table, 3 columns of data not given in the 1995 table are included: GL values, a nominal serving size for each food (weight in g or volume in mL), and the carbohydrate content of each food (in g/serving). The GL values are included for most of the foods and were calculated by multiplying the amount of carbohydrate contained in a specified serving size of the food by the GI value of that food (with the use of glucose as the reference food), which was then divided by 100. The nominal serving sizes were chosen after consideration of typical serving sizes in different countries. The carbohydrate content was obtained from the reference paper or, when not available, from appropriate food-composition tables (34–38). For indigenous foods, values were extrapolated from Western foods thought to be closest in composition when the nutrient content was not available.

The purpose of including GL values in the revised table was to allow comparisons of the likely glycemic effect of realistic portion sizes of different foods. The data should be used cautiously because they are not applicable to all situations. Portion sizes vary markedly from country to country and between people in the same country. Researchers and health professionals should therefore calculate their own GL data by using appropriate serving sizes and carbohydrate-composition data. In the interest of future editions of the table, we ask that reliable published and unpublished data be sent to us for consideration.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
 REFERENCES
REFERENCES 
 

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 INTRODUCTION
 REVISED INTERNATIONAL TABLE OF...
 WHY DO GI VALUES...
 GUIDE TO THE USE...
 GLYCEMIC LOAD
 REFERENCES
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Received for publication November 20, 2001. Accepted for publication March 26, 2002.




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D. Lioger, A. Fardet, P. Foassert, M.-J. Davicco, J. Mardon, B. Gaillard-Martinie, and C. Remesy
Influence of Sourdough Prefermentation, of Steam Cooking Suppression and of Decreased Sucrose Content during Wheat Flakes Processing on the Plasma Glucose and Insulin Responses and Satiety of Healthy Subjects
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., February 1, 2009; 28(1): 30 - 36.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. C Brand-Miller, K. Stockmann, F. Atkinson, P. Petocz, and G. Denyer
Glycemic index, postprandial glycemia, and the shape of the curve in healthy subjects: analysis of a database of more than 1000 foods
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2009; 89(1): 97 - 105.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M. A Mendez, M. I. Covas, J. Marrugat, J. Vila, H. Schroder, and on behalf of the REGICOR and HERMES investigators
Glycemic load, glycemic index, and body mass index in Spanish adults
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2009; 89(1): 316 - 322.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
W. Wen, X. O. Shu, H. Li, G. Yang, B.-T. Ji, H. Cai, Y.-T. Gao, and W. Zheng
Dietary carbohydrates, fiber, and breast cancer risk in Chinese women
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2009; 89(1): 283 - 289.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
G. Livesey and H. Tagami
Interventions to lower the glycemic response to carbohydrate foods with a low-viscosity fiber (resistant maltodextrin): meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2009; 89(1): 114 - 125.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 StrokeHome page
S. Kaushik, J. J. Wang, T. Y. Wong, V. Flood, A. Barclay, J. Brand-Miller, and P. Mitchell
Glycemic Index, Retinal Vascular Caliber, and Stroke Mortality
Stroke, January 1, 2009; 40(1): 206 - 212.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 JAMAHome page
D. J. A. Jenkins, C. W. C. Kendall, G. McKeown-Eyssen, R. G. Josse, J. Silverberg, G. L. Booth, E. Vidgen, A. R. Josse, T. H. Nguyen, S. Corrigan, et al.
Effect of a Low-Glycemic Index or a High-Cereal Fiber Diet on Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized Trial
JAMA, December 17, 2008; 300(23): 2742 - 2753.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
K. J Melanson, T. J Angelopoulos, V. Nguyen, L. Zukley, J. Lowndes, and J. M Rippe
High-fructose corn syrup, energy intake, and appetite regulation
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2008; 88(6): 1738S - 1744S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
S. Bogdanov, T. Jurendic, R. Sieber, and P. Gallmann
Honey for Nutrition and Health: A Review
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., December 1, 2008; 27(6): 677 - 689.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
F. S. Atkinson, K. Foster-Powell, and J. C. Brand-Miller
International Tables of Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load Values: 2008
Diabetes Care, December 1, 2008; 31(12): 2281 - 2283.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
N. C Howarth, S. P Murphy, L. R Wilkens, B. E Henderson, and L. N Kolonel
The association of glycemic load and carbohydrate intake with colorectal cancer risk in the Multiethnic Cohort Study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2008; 88(4): 1074 - 1082.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. Kaushik, J. J. Wang, V. Flood, J. S. L. Tan, A. W Barclay, T. Y Wong, J. Brand-Miller, and P. Mitchell
Dietary glycemic index and the risk of age-related macular degeneration
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2008; 88(4): 1104 - 1110.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
Y. Papanikolaou and V. L. Fulgoni III
Bean Consumption Is Associated with Greater Nutrient Intake, Reduced Systolic Blood Pressure, Lower Body Weight, and a Smaller Waist Circumference in Adults: Results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2002
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., October 1, 2008; 27(5): 569 - 576.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. Lopez, B. Bermudez, Y. M Pacheco, J. Villar, R. Abia, and F. J. Muriana
Distinctive postprandial modulation of {beta} cell function and insulin sensitivity by dietary fats: monounsaturated compared with saturated fatty acids
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2008; 88(3): 638 - 644.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
R. L. Ryan, B. R. King, D. G. Anderson, J. R. Attia, C. E. Collins, and C. E. Smart
Influence of and Optimal Insulin Therapy for a Low-Glycemic Index Meal in Children With Type 1 Diabetes Receiving Intensive Insulin Therapy
Diabetes Care, August 1, 2008; 31(8): 1485 - 1490.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Arch Intern MedHome page
J. R. Palmer, D. A. Boggs, S. Krishnan, F. B. Hu, M. Singer, and L. Rosenberg
Sugar-Sweetened Beverages and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in African American Women
Arch Intern Med, July 28, 2008; 168(14): 1487 - 1492.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 AMERICAN JOURNAL OF LIFESTYLE MEDICINEHome page
S. S. Bassuk and J. E. Manson
Lifestyle and Risk of Cardiovascular Disease and Type 2 Diabetes in Women: A Review of the Epidemiologic Evidence
American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, June 1, 2008; 2(3): 191 - 213.
[Abstract] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. Dickinson, D. P Hancock, P. Petocz, A. Ceriello, and J. Brand-Miller
High-glycemic index carbohydrate increases nuclear factor-{kappa}B activation in mononuclear cells of young, lean healthy subjects
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2008; 87(5): 1188 - 1193.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M. Lajous, M.-C. Boutron-Ruault, A. Fabre, F. Clavel-Chapelon, and I. Romieu
Carbohydrate intake, glycemic index, glycemic load, and risk of postmenopausal breast cancer in a prospective study of French women
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2008; 87(5): 1384 - 1391.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M. M Heinen, B. A. Verhage, L. Lumey, H. A. Brants, R A. Goldbohm, and P. A van den Brandt
Glycemic load, glycemic index, and pancreatic cancer risk in the Netherlands Cohort Study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2008; 87(4): 970 - 977.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
K. L Pearce, M. Noakes, J. Keogh, and P. M Clifton
Effect of carbohydrate distribution on postprandial glucose peaks with the use of continuous glucose monitoring in type 2 diabetes
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2008; 87(3): 638 - 644.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
H. Du, D. L van der A, M. M. van Bakel, C. J. van der Kallen, E. E Blaak, M. M. van Greevenbroek, E. H. Jansen, G. Nijpels, C. D. Stehouwer, J. M Dekker, et al.
Glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to food and nutrient intake and metabolic risk factors in a Dutch population
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, March 1, 2008; 87(3): 655 - 661.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 The Journal of School NursingHome page
S. Harrington
The Role of Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Consumption in Adolescent Obesity: A Review of the Literature
The Journal of School Nursing, February 1, 2008; 24(1): 3 - 12.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
Z. Fajcsak, A. Gabor, V. Kovacs, and E. Martos
The Effects of 6-Week Low Glycemic Load Diet Based on Low Glycemic Index Foods in Overweight/Obese Children - Pilot Study
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., February 1, 2008; 27(1): 12 - 21.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Ann OncolHome page
G. Randi, M. Ferraroni, R. Talamini, W. Garavello, S. Deandrea, A. Decarli, S. Franceschi, and C. La Vecchia
Glycemic index, glycemic load and thyroid cancer risk
Ann. Onc., February 1, 2008; 19(2): 380 - 383.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
H. A. Wolpert
The Nuts and Bolts of Achieving End Points With Real-Time Continuous Glucose Monitoring
Diabetes Care, February 1, 2008; 31(Supplement_2): S146 - S149.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
G. Livesey, R. Taylor, T. Hulshof, and J. Howlett
Glycemic response and health a systematic review and meta-analysis: relations between dietary glycemic properties and health outcomes
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2008; 87(1): 258S - 268S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
G. Riccardi, A. A Rivellese, and R. Giacco
Role of glycemic index and glycemic load in the healthy state, in prediabetes, and in diabetes
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, January 1, 2008; 87(1): 269S - 274S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. Soenen and M. S Westerterp-Plantenga
No differences in satiety or energy intake after high-fructose corn syrup, sucrose, or milk preloads
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2007; 86(6): 1586 - 1594.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Arch Intern MedHome page
S. Krishnan, L. Rosenberg, M. Singer, F. B. Hu, L. Djousse, L. A. Cupples, and J. R. Palmer
Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Cereal Fiber Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in US Black Women
Arch Intern Med, November 26, 2007; 167(21): 2304 - 2309.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Arch Intern MedHome page
R. Villegas, S. Liu, Y.-T. Gao, G. Yang, H. Li, W. Zheng, and X. O. Shu
Prospective Study of Dietary Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Middle-aged Chinese Women
Arch Intern Med, November 26, 2007; 167(21): 2310 - 2316.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. N Davis, K. E Alexander, E. E Ventura, L. A Kelly, C. J Lane, C. E Byrd-Williams, C. M Toledo-Corral, C. K Roberts, D. Spruijt-Metz, M. J Weigensberg, et al.
Associations of dietary sugar and glycemic index with adiposity and insulin dynamics in overweight Latino youth
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2007; 86(5): 1331 - 1338.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
U. Nothlings, S. P Murphy, L. R Wilkens, B. E Henderson, and L. N Kolonel
Dietary glycemic load, added sugars, and carbohydrates as risk factors for pancreatic cancer: the Multiethnic Cohort Study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2007; 86(5): 1495 - 1501.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. Tan, J. J. Wang, V. Flood, S. Kaushik, A. Barclay, J. Brand-Miller, and P. Mitchell
Carbohydrate nutrition, glycemic index, and the 10-y incidence of cataract
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2007; 86(5): 1502 - 1508.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
T. W.K. Ng, G. F. Watts, P. H. R. Barrett, K.-A. Rye, and D. C. Chan
Effect of Weight Loss on LDL and HDL Kinetics in the Metabolic Syndrome: Associations with changes in plasma retinol-binding protein-4 and adiponectin levels
Diabetes Care, November 1, 2007; 30(11): 2945 - 2950.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
A. W. Barclay, V. M. Flood, E. Rochtchina, P. Mitchell, and J. C. Brand-Miller
Glycemic Index, Dietary Fiber, and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in a Cohort of Older Australians
Diabetes Care, November 1, 2007; 30(11): 2811 - 2813.
[Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Nutr.Home page
J. M. W. Wong and D. J. A. Jenkins
Carbohydrate Digestibility and Metabolic Effects
J. Nutr., November 1, 2007; 137(11): 2539S - 2546S.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am J EpidemiolHome page
A. E. Cust, N. Slimani, R. Kaaks, M. van Bakel, C. Biessy, P. Ferrari, M. Laville, A. Tjonneland, A. Olsen, K. Overvad, et al.
Dietary Carbohydrates, Glycemic Index, Glycemic Load, and Endometrial Cancer Risk within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition Cohort
Am. J. Epidemiol., October 15, 2007; 166(8): 912 - 923.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
A. E Buyken, K. Trauner, A. L. Gunther, A. Kroke, and T. Remer
Breakfast glycemic index affects subsequent daily energy intake in free-living healthy children
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 980 - 987.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
A. Mosdol, D. R Witte, G. Frost, M. G Marmot, and E. J Brunner
Dietary glycemic index and glycemic load are associated with high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol at baseline but not with increased risk of diabetes in the Whitehall II study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 988 - 994.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. Sieri, V. Pala, F. Brighenti, N. Pellegrini, P. Muti, A. Micheli, A. Evangelista, S. Grioni, P. Contiero, F. Berrino, et al.
Dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and the risk of breast cancer in an Italian prospective cohort study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 1160 - 1166.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
C.-J. Chiu, R. C Milton, R. Klein, G. Gensler, and A. Taylor
Dietary carbohydrate and the progression of age-related macular degeneration: a prospective study from the Age-Related Eye Disease Study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 1210 - 1218.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. Brand-Miller
Effects of glycemic load on weight loss in overweight adults
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2007; 86(4): 1249 - 1250.
[Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
R. Sichieri, A. S Moura, V. Genelhu, F. Hu, and W. C Willett
An 18-mo randomized trial of a low-glycemic-index diet and weight change in Brazilian women
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2007; 86(3): 707 - 713.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. E McCann, W. E McCann, C.-C. Hong, J. R Marshall, S. B Edge, M. Trevisan, P. Muti, and J. L Freudenheim
Dietary patterns related to glycemic index and load and risk of premenopausal and postmenopausal breast cancer in the Western New York Exposure and Breast Cancer Study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2007; 86(2): 465 - 471.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J Am Coll CardiolHome page
J. W.J. Beulens, L. M. de Bruijne, R. P. Stolk, P. H.M. Peeters, M. L. Bots, D. E. Grobbee, and Y. T. van der Schouw
High Dietary Glycemic Load and Glycemic Index Increase Risk of Cardiovascular Disease Among Middle-Aged Women: A Population-Based Follow-Up Study
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., July 3, 2007; 50(1): 14 - 21.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
R. N Smith, N. J Mann, A. Braue, H. Makelainen, and G. A. Varigos
A low-glycemic-load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients: a randomized controlled trial
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2007; 86(1): 107 - 115.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
C.-J. Chiu, R. C Milton, G. Gensler, and A. Taylor
Association between dietary glycemic index and age-related macular degeneration in nondiabetic participants in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2007; 86(1): 180 - 188.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
E. B Levitan, M. A Mittleman, N. Hakansson, and A. Wolk
Dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, and cardiovascular disease in middle-aged and older Swedish men
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2007; 85(6): 1521 - 1526.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
J. C Brand-Miller, K. Fatima, C. Middlemiss, M. Bare, V. Liu, F. Atkinson, and P. Petocz
Effect of alcoholic beverages on postprandial glycemia and insulinemia in lean, young, healthy adults
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, June 1, 2007; 85(6): 1545 - 1551.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Nutr.Home page
J. Montonen, R. Jarvinen, P. Knekt, M. Heliovaara, and A. Reunanen
Consumption of Sweetened Beverages and Intakes of Fructose and Glucose Predict Type 2 Diabetes Occurrence
J. Nutr., June 1, 2007; 137(6): 1447 - 1454.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Diabetes CareHome page
S. Vega-Lopez, L. M. Ausman, J. L. Griffith, and A. H. Lichtenstein
Interindividual Variability and Intra-Individual Reproducibility of Glycemic Index Values for Commercial White Bread
Diabetes Care, June 1, 2007; 30(6): 1412 - 1417.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 JAMAHome page
C. B. Ebbeling, M. M. Leidig, H. A. Feldman, M. M. Lovesky, and D. S. Ludwig
Effects of a Low-Glycemic Load vs Low-Fat Diet in Obese Young Adults: A Randomized Trial
JAMA, May 16, 2007; 297(19): 2092 - 2102.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. K. Das, C. H Gilhooly, J. K Golden, A. G Pittas, P. J Fuss, R. A Cheatham, S. Tyler, M. Tsay, M. A McCrory, A. H Lichtenstein, et al.
Long-term effects of 2 energy-restricted diets differing in glycemic load on dietary adherence, body composition, and metabolism in CALERIE: a 1-y randomized controlled trial
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, April 1, 2007; 85(4): 1023 - 1030.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
A. Afaghi, H. O'Connor, and C. M. Chow
High-glycemic-index carbohydrate meals shorten sleep onset
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2007; 85(2): 426 - 430.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
E. B Levitan, C. W Westgren, S. Liu, and A. Wolk
Reproducibility and validity of dietary glycemic index, dietary glycemic load, and total carbohydrate intake in 141 Swedish men
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, February 1, 2007; 85(2): 548 - 553.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am J EpidemiolHome page
S. C. Larsson, E. Giovannucci, and A. Wolk
Dietary Carbohydrate, Glycemic Index, and Glycemic Load in Relation to Risk of Colorectal Cancer in Women
Am. J. Epidemiol., February 1, 2007; 165(3): 256 - 261.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Eur Heart JHome page
A. D. Liese, T. Gilliard, M. Schulz, R. B. D'Agostino Jr, and T. M.S. Wolever
Carbohydrate nutrition, glycaemic load, and plasma lipids: the Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study
Eur. Heart J., January 1, 2007; 28(1): 80 - 87.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
K. A Hatonen, M. E Simila, J. R Virtamo, J. G Eriksson, M.-L. Hannila, H. K Sinkko, J. E Sundvall, H. M Mykkanen, and L. M Valsta
Methodologic considerations in the measurement of glycemic index: glycemic response to rye bread, oatmeal porridge, and mashed potato.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2006; 84(5): 1055 - 1061.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
A. Flood, U. Peters, D. J. Jenkins, N. Chatterjee, A. F Subar, T. R Church, R. Bresalier, J. L Weissfeld, R. B Hayes, A. Schatzkin, et al.
Carbohydrate, glycemic index, and glycemic load and colorectal adenomas in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Screening Study.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2006; 84(5): 1184 - 1192.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
M. A Pereira
Weighing in on glycemic index and body weight.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2006; 84(4): 677 - 679.
[Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
R. G Moses, M. Luebcke, W. S Davis, K. J Coleman, L. C Tapsell, P. Petocz, and J. C Brand-Miller
Effect of a low-glycemic-index diet during pregnancy on obstetric outcomes.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2006; 84(4): 807 - 812.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
H. Hare-Bruun, A. Flint, and B. L Heitmann
Glycemic index and glycemic load in relation to changes in body weight, body fat distribution, and body composition in adult Danes.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, October 1, 2006; 84(4): 871 - 879.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
R. Baschetti, Y. Ma, B. C. Olendzki, A. R. Hafner, D. E. Chiriboga, W. Li, J. R. Hebert, Y. Li, K. Leung, and I. S. Ockene
Carbohydrate intake, serum lipids, and evolution.
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., October 1, 2006; 25(5): 437 - 438.
[Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
C. Lau, U. Toft, I. Tetens, B. Richelsen, T. Jorgensen, K. Borch-Johnsen, and C. Glumer
Association between dietary glycemic index, glycemic load, and body mass index in the Inter99 study: is underreporting a problem?
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, September 1, 2006; 84(3): 641 - 645.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J Am Coll CardiolHome page
D. Giugliano, A. Ceriello, and K. Esposito
The Effects of Diet on Inflammation: Emphasis on the Metabolic Syndrome
J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., August 15, 2006; 48(4): 677 - 685.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
V. S Malik, M. B Schulze, and F. B Hu
Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2006; 84(2): 274 - 288.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
E. J Stevenson, C. Williams, L. E Mash, B. Phillips, and M. L Nute
Influence of high-carbohydrate mixed meals with different glycemic indexes on substrate utilization during subsequent exercise in women.
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, August 1, 2006; 84(2): 354 - 360.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
M. C. Casiraghi, M. Garsetti, G. Testolin, and F. Brighenti
Post-Prandial Responses to Cereal Products Enriched with Barley {beta}-Glucan.
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., August 1, 2006; 25(4): 313 - 320.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Arch Intern MedHome page
J. McMillan-Price, P. Petocz, F. Atkinson, K. O'Neill, S. Samman, K. Steinbeck, I. Caterson, and J. Brand-Miller
Comparison of 4 diets of varying glycemic load on weight loss and cardiovascular risk reduction in overweight and obese young adults: a randomized controlled trial.
Arch Intern Med, July 24, 2006; 166(14): 1466 - 1475.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
Y. Hu, G. Block, E. P Norkus, J. D Morrow, M. Dietrich, and M. Hudes
Relations of glycemic index and glycemic load with plasma oxidative stress markers
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2006; 84(1): 70 - 76.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 Am. J. Clin. Nutr.Home page
S. Valtuena, N. Pellegrini, D. Ardigo, D. Del Rio, F. Numeroso, F. Scazzina, L. Monti, I. Zavaroni, and F. Brighenti
Dietary glycemic index and liver steatosis
Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, July 1, 2006; 84(1): 136 - 142.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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 J. Nutr.Home page
A. E. Buyken, Y. Kellerhoff, S. Hahn, A. Kroke, and T. Remer
Urinary C-Peptide Excretion in Free-Living Healthy Children Is Related to Dietary Carbohydrate Intake but Not to the Dietary Glycemic Index
J. Nutr., July 1, 2006; 136(7): 1828 - 1833.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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T. M. Wolever, M. Yang, X. Y. Zeng, F. Atkinson, and J. C Brand-Miller
Food glycemic index, as given in Glycemic Index tables, is a significant determinant of glycemic responses elicited by composite breakfast meals
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[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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