AJCN North Carolina Research Campus
HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS
QUICK SEARCH:   [advanced]


     

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Purchase Article
Right arrow View Shopping Cart
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Roe, M. A
Right arrow Articles by Fairweather-Tait, S. J
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Roe, M. A
Right arrow Articles by Fairweather-Tait, S. J
Agricola
Right arrow Articles by Roe, M. A
Right arrow Articles by Fairweather-Tait, S. J
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 81, No. 4, 814-821, April 2005
© 2005 American Society for Clinical Nutrition

ORIGINAL RESEARCH COMMUNICATION

Iron absorption in male C282Y heterozygotes1,2,3

Mark A Roe, Anne-Louise M Heath, Sarah L Oyston, Cate Macrow, Jurian A Hoogewerff, Rob Foxall, Jack R Dainty, Gosia Majsak-Newman, Gavin Willis and Susan J Fairweather-Tait

1 From the Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, United Kingdom (MAR, SLO, CM, JAH, RF, JRD, GM-N, and SJF-T); the Department of Human Nutrition, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand (A-LMH); and the Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital NHS Trust, Norwich, United Kingdom (GW).

2 Supported by the UK Food Standards Agency, the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council, and the New Zealand Health Research Council (Fellowship to A-LMH). Corn Flakes and Poptarts without added iron were supplied by the Kellogg Company, Warrington, United Kingdom.

3 Address reprint requests to SJ Fairweather-Tait, Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7UA, Norfolk, United Kingdom. E-mail: sue.fairweather-tait{at}bbsrc.ac.uk.


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Background: The suggestion that carriers of the HFE C282Y mutation absorb nonheme iron more efficiently than do carriers of the wild type has public health implications for countries where the C282Y mutation is common and foods are fortified with iron.

Objective: We investigated the effect of C282Y heterozygosity on nonheme-iron absorption from a diet high in bioavailable iron and from iron-fortified cereals.

Design: The subjects were recruited from a parallel study investigating the relation between HFE mutations, habitual diet, and iron status. Iron absorption was measured in 15 wild-type carriers and 15 C282Y heterozygotes aged ≥40 y. Each subject consumed 3 meals of high iron bioavailability (labeled with Fe-57) for 2 d and 2 meals with fortified cereal products (labeled with Fe-54) for the next 3 d. Iron absorption was measured from isotope incorporation into red blood cells 14 d after the last labeled meal and was corrected for utilization of absorbed iron by means of an intravenous infusion of Fe-58.

Results: Absorption of Fe-57 with the high-iron-bioavailability diet was 6.8 ± 6.8% (0.6 ± 0.6 mg/d) in the wild-type carriers and 7.6 ± 3.2% (0.7 ± 0.3 mg/d) in the C282Y heterozygotes. Absorption of Fe-54 with cereal products was 4.9 ± 2.0% (0.7 ± 0.3 mg/d) in the wild-type carriers and 5.3 ± 1.3% (0.8 ± 0.2 mg/d) in the C282Y heterozygotes.

Conclusions: There was no overall significant difference between C282Y heterozygotes and wild-type men in iron absorption from either dietary nonheme iron or fortified cereal products.

Key Words: Iron absorption • HFE mutations • C282Y heterozygotes • iron fortification • dietary iron


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
SUBJECTS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
For many decades, iron deficiency has been the primary driver of public health policies concerned with iron nutrition. However, with increasing interest in the role of dietary prooxidants in chronic disease and the discovery that the cysteine-to-tyrosine substitution at codon 282 of the HFE gene (C282Y mutation) is a major risk factor for hereditary hemochromatosis (1), the potential health risks associated with an overabundant iron supply are under scrutiny. Up to 1 in 150 persons (2–4) in populations of northern European origin are homozygous for the C282Y mutation of the HFE gene. Hemochromatosis is an autosomal recessive condition in which excess iron is absorbed and accumulated and, if untreated, will cause progressive tissue damage, in particular, cirrhosis of the liver. Although most patients with hemochromatosis are homozygous for the C282Y mutation of the HFE gene (5), many other mutations in the HFE coding sequence have also been identified, the most common of which is the H63D mutation. Compound heterozygotes are heterozygous for both the C282Y mutation and the H63D mutation and account for {approx}2.6% of hemochromatosis patients in the United Kingdom (5).

Fifteen years ago, Lynch et al (6) undertook iron-absorption studies in treated hemochromatosis patients and children or siblings who shared a single HLA haplotype. The inferred heterozygotes (geometric mean serum ferritin: 68 µg/L) and healthy control subjects (geometric mean serum ferritin: 50 µg/L) absorbed a similar amount of nonheme iron from a hamburger meal containing 3.4 mg nonheme iron, but when 20 mg Fe (as ferrous sulfate, with 100 mg ascorbic acid) was added to the meal, the heterozygotes absorbed nearly 3 times the amount of iron as did the control subjects (9.2% and 3.4%, respectively). This observation fueled concern about iron fortification in countries where HFE mutations are relatively common. If heterozygotes partially express the homozygote phenotype and also absorb significantly more iron from fortified foods, they may accumulate iron and be susceptible to diseases associated with inappropriately high levels of body iron. Many breakfast cereals are fortified with iron, but they are rarely eaten as part of a meat-containing meal. The observation that heterozygotes absorb more iron from an iron-fortified hamburger meal (6) may not be applicable to fortified foods that are not consumed with meat, eg, breakfast cereals. The objective of the present study was to measure iron absorption from iron-fortified breakfast cereals and separately from meals containing highly bioavailable iron in C282Y heterozygotes and wild-type men; a smaller group of C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes, identified as part of a parallel investigation, was also studied.


   SUBJECTS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Men aged ≥40 y were recruited for the study, and a 10-mL blood sample was taken for HFE genotype analysis (7). Subjects with chronic or acute illness or those taking medication regularly, which could affect iron absorption, were excluded. The study was approved by the Norwich District Ethics Committee, and written informed consent was obtained from all subjects. As part of a general diet and health questionnaire, all subjects were asked about their family history of hemochromatosis; none reported a history of this disorder. A 10-mL fasting blood sample was taken from the subjects to exclude those whose biochemical and hematologic indexes fell outside the normal range. Absorption from a diet high in bioavailable iron and containing iron-fortified cereal products was measured in 15 C282Y, 15 wild-type carriers, and 5 C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes. The 3 genetic groups were matched as closely as possible in terms of age and body mass index (Table 1Go).


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 1 Characteristics of the subjects1

 
Subjects attended the Human Nutrition Unit at the Institute of Food Research for test meals and blood sampling. On days 1 and 2, they consumed a diet high in bioavailable iron (Table 2Go), which was extrinsically labeled with a total of 18 mg Fe-57 as ferrous sulfate. On days 3, 4, and 5, a diet containing fortified cereal products extrinsically labeled with a total of 45 mg Fe-54 as ferrous sulfate was consumed (Table 3Go). Iron absorption was determined by measuring the incorporation of Fe-57 and Fe-54 in red blood cells 14 d after the last test meal. The utilization of absorbed iron was measured from red blood cell incorporation of an intravenous infusion of Fe-58–labeled iron citrate.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 2 Menu for the high-iron-bioavailability diet

 

View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 3 Menu for the iron-fortified cereal diet

 
On day 1, a 25-mL venous blood sample was taken from fasting subjects via an indwelling cannula, and iron-isotope and iron-status indexes were measured (hemoglobin, serum iron, total-iron-binding capacity, serum ferritin, serum transferrin receptor, and C-reactive protein). Breakfast, extrinsically labeled with 3.0 mg Fe-57-enriched ferrous sulfate, was consumed and 1 h later a 400-µg dose of Fe-58 as iron citrate was slowly infused over 3 h. The rate of intravenous infusion of iron was based on the estimated 2 µg/min plasma appearance of iron normally absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. After the infusion, the subjects consumed a meal extrinsically labeled with 3.0 mg Fe-57-enriched ferrous sulfate. An evening meal extrinsically labeled with 3.0 mg Fe-57–enriched ferrous sulfate was consumed 3–5 h after lunch. A selection of low-iron snacks and water was available from 2 h after the evening meal until 2200. The same procedure was followed on day 2, with the exception of the intravenous infusion.

On days 3, 4, and 5, the subjects consumed a breakfast cereal containing no added iron (Corn Flakes; Kellogg’s, Warrington, United Kingdom) and milk, extrinsically labeled with 7.3 mg Fe-54 as ferrous sulfate. Lunch, containing no added iron, was provided to the subjects within a minimum of 2 h after their breakfast. A further 7.3 mg Fe-54 as ferrous sulfate was consumed with an unfortified cereal-based snack (Kellogg’s Poptart, Warrington, United Kingdom) a minimum of 2 h after lunch. An evening meal, containing no added iron, and snacks were provided from a minimum of 2 h after the cereal snack until 2200. Weak tea was permitted with the unlabeled lunch and evening meals if requested.

Fourteen days after the last labeled meal was consumed (day 19), a 25-mL venous blood sample was taken from fasting subjects for the measurement of iron-status indexes (hemoglobin, serum iron, total-iron-binding capacity, serum ferritin, serum transferrin receptor, and C-reactive protein) and the iron-isotope enrichment of red blood cells. Iron absorption from the test meals was calculated from the isotopic enrichment of red blood cells 14 d after the last test meal, the total iron concentration in whole blood, and an estimate of blood volume from the equation (10):

(1)
The diet consumed on days 1 and 2 was designed to optimize the intake of bioavailable iron by maximizing dietary factors that promote iron absorption, eg, vitamin C (11–14) and animal tissue (15, 16), and by minimizing dietary factors that inhibit iron absorption, eg, phytate (17–20), polyphenols (21–23), and calcium (24) while using foods and food combinations that are typically eaten by this population. The diet consumed on days 3, 4, and 5 was designed to include high levels of iron added to cereal products. The nutrient content of the diets was calculated by using UK food-composition tables (25, 26), and the diet was designed to provide {approx}2200 kcal(9.2 MJ)/d (excluding evening snacks) with 35% of energy from fat.

Nonheme iron in the meals was extrinsically labeled by consuming isotopically enriched iron in 200 mL pure orange juice (unsweetened, Tesco; Cheshunt, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom) with the meal. The iron stable isotope plus 10 mg ascorbic acid (Sigma, Poole, United Kingdom) per mg of iron (3:1 molar ratio of ascorbic acid to iron) was added to the orange juice just before consumption.

Ferrous sulfate solutions were prepared from elemental Fe-54 (2.2595 g, 99.82 atom%; Chemgas, Boulogne, France) and Fe-57 (0.911 g, 95.73 atom%; Chemgas) according to a previously developed method (27). Iron citrate, enriched with Fe-58, was prepared for intravenous infusion from elemental Fe-58 (24.54 mg, 95.23 atom%; Chemgas) according to the method previously described by Dainty et al (28). Iron-isotope solutions were divided into aliquots and sterilized at the Ipswich Hospital NHS Trust Pharmacy.

Hemoglobin, serum iron, total-iron-binding capacity, transferrin saturation, serum ferritin, and C-reactive protein concentrations were measured at the Chemical Pathology Department of the Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, United Kingdom.

Soluble transferrin receptor concentrations were measured in EDTA-treated plasma, stored at –80 °C, with the use of a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit (Quantikine IVD Soluble Transferrin Receptor ELISA; R&D Systems Europe Ltd, Oxon, United Kingdom). The iron content of whole blood was calculated from the hemoglobin concentration:

(2)
Iron-isotope enrichment was measured in whole blood stored in trace element–free EDTA vacutainers (Sarstedt, Leicester, United Kingdom) at –20 °C. Aliquots (0.5 g) were weighed into a quartz glass tube, and 2 mL concentrated HNO3 and 2 mL H2O2 (both Ultrapur; Merck Ltd, Darmstadt, Germany) were added. The mixture was left overnight, and digestion was completed by irradiation at {approx}90 °C for 40 min with an ultraviolet digestion system (705 UV digester; Metrohm, Herisau, Switzerland). The digests were quantitatively transferred into 30-mL polytetrafluoroethylene vials and evaporated to dryness under a 1-kW lamp. The samples were redissolved with 4 mL 6 mol HCl/L (Ultrapur; Merck Ltd, Lutterworth, United Kingdom) and transferred to 15-mL borosilicate glass tubes. Iron was extracted twice into 2 mL diethyl ether (Aristar; Merck Ltd, Lutterworth, United Kingdom), the ether phase was aspirated into a 7-mL trace element–free tube (Becton Dickinson, Plymouth, United Kingdom), the ether was allowed to evaporate, and the sample residue was dried under a 1-kW lamp. The iron was dissolved in 100 µL concentrated HNO3 and diluted further with demineralized purified water (Milli-Q, Watford, United Kingdom) to give a solution containing {approx}40 µg Fe/mL. The mean (±SD) recovery of iron, measured by atomic absorption spectroscopy, was 82 ± 11%. Samples were diluted to 2 µg/mL with 2% HNO3 before isotope-ratio analysis with a single focusing Multi Collector Mass Spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) (Isoprobe; Micromass, Manchester, United Kingdom) with a desolvating sample introduction system with a microconcentric nebulizer (Aridus and T1H; both from Cetac, Omaha, NE). All samples were run in triplicate and were calibrated against IRMM014 (27), which was measured before and after each sample.

Iron absorption was calculated from the ratio of iron isotopes in red blood cells, the content of iron in whole blood, and blood volume. Concentrations of the Fe-54, Fe-57, and Fe-58 doses in the sample were calculated from the mole fractions of each isotope measured by MC-ICP-MS, the natural abundance of each isotope, and the mole fractions of each isotope in the oral and intravenous doses. The quantities of oral and intravenous doses circulating in the blood were calculated by multiplying the measured concentration by the total iron content of the blood.

The fraction of iron incorporated into red blood cells was calculated as the percentage of the dose found in red blood cells after 14 d. Red blood cell incorporation was calculated from the amount of intravenous Fe-58 found in red blood cells after 14 d. The absorption of oral iron was calculated by dividing the percentage of red blood cell incorporation of the oral dose by the fractional red blood cell incorporation of the intravenous dose.

Statistics
The relation between iron absorption, iron status, and genotype was examined by using analysis of variance with the STATS package R (30). Serum ferritin, hemoglobin, serum iron, transferrin saturation, total-iron-binding capacity, soluble transferrin receptor, age, lean body mass, body surface area, and genotype were examined as explanatory variables for iron absorption. The initial linear regression model included all variables and, once the model was trimmed of all nonsignificant terms, Tukey’s honestly significant difference test was used to identify differences between genotypes. Outliers were identified by using a combination of qq plots and a Bonferroni-adjusted examination of the probabilities of obtaining the observed Studentized residuals against their hypothetical t distribution and were removed accordingly.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
There were no significant differences in iron status between the genotype groups (Table 1Go), which thereby minimized differences in iron absorption related to systemic concentrations of iron. The mean iron absorption for each group is shown in Table 4Go. The results of an analysis of variance of the relation between iron absorption, iron status, and genotype are given in Table 5Go.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 4 Nonheme-iron absorption from the high-iron-bioavailability diet and the iron-fortified cereal diet1

 

View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 5 ANOVA models with absorption of Fe-57 from the high-iron-bioavailability diet and absorption of Fe-54 from cereal products as the response variables

 
Mean absorption of the Fe-57 added to the high-iron-bioavailability diet was 6.8% (0.6 mg/d), 7.6% (0.7 mg/d), and 8.3% (0.7 mg/d) for the wild-type, C282Y heterozygote, and C282Y/H63D compound heterozygote groups, respectively. Mean absorption of the Fe-54-fortified cereal was 4.9% (0.7 mg/d), 5.3% (0.8 mg/d), and 5.1% (0.8 mg/d) for the wild-type, C282Y heterozygote, and C282Y/H63D compound heterozygote groups, respectively. There was no significant effect of genotype on iron absorption.

Absorption from all nonheme iron in the test meals was calculated by analyzing the total iron content of the test meals and deducting estimated heme iron (Table 6Go). Mean daily intakes were 15.2 mg/d from the high-iron-bioavailability diet and 16.4 mg/d from the cereal products (breakfast and afternoon snack). Total nonheme-iron absorption was estimated from the percentage absorption of the labeled isotope dose, assuming that the iron from the extrinsic isotope and the nonheme iron from unlabeled meals form a common pool in the gut. Mean (±SD) absorption of nonheme iron from the high-iron-bioavailability diet was 1.0 ± 1.0, 1.2 ± 0.5, and 1.3 ± 1.5 mg/d in the wild-type, C282Y heterozygote, and C282Y/H63D compound heterozygote groups, respectively (Table 4Go). Mean absorption of nonheme iron from the cereal products was 0.8 ± 0.3, 0.9 ± 0.2, and 0.8 ± 0.4 mg/d in the wild-type, C282Y heterozygote, and C282Y/H63D compound heterozygote groups, respectively (Table 4Go). There was no effect of genotype on nonheme-iron absorption.


View this table:
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		TABLE 6 Nutrient content of the test meals

 
Absorption of nonheme iron from the high-iron-bioavailability diet was highly correlated with absorption of nonheme iron from cereal products (R2 = 0.68, P < 0.001), and there was weak evidence that absorption from the high-iron-bioavailability diet was greater than that from the cereal products (P = 0.062, Wilcoxon’s matched-pairs signed-ranks test). The relation between serum ferritin and absorption of Fe-57 from the high-iron-bioavailability diet and Fe-54 from the cereal products is presented in Figure 1Go. Linear regression analysis of the log transforms of serum ferritin and the difference between absorption from the 2 diets showed that the subjects with a lower serum ferritin concentration absorbed significantly more nonheme iron from the high-iron-bioavailability diet than from the fortified cereal products (P < 0.001). There was a significant negative correlation between serum ferritin concentration and iron absorption (mg/d) from the high-iron-bioavailability diet in both the wild-type group (R2 = 0.28, P < 0.05) and C282Y (R2 = 0.44, P < 0.01) heterozygotes. This was also the case with the iron-fortified cereals for the wild-type group (R2 = 0.36, P < 0.02), but the correlation was not significant for C282Y heterozygotes (R2 = 0.24, P < 0.1). When the subjects with a serum ferritin concentration > 70 µg/L were excluded from the analysis, the correlation between serum ferritin concentration and iron absorption was much stronger from the high-iron-bioavailability meals (R2 = 0.54, P < 0.001) and the cereal products (R2 = 0.51, P < 0.001), which provides further experimental support for the theory that iron absorption is similar to basal iron requirements when serum ferritin exceeds 70 µg/L (31, 32).



View larger version (8K):
[in this window]
[in a new window]
  		FIGURE 1. Relation between serum ferritin and the percentage absorption of Fe-57 from a diet with high iron bioavailability (r = –0.54, P < 0.01) and of Fe-54 from cereal products (r = –0.54, P < 0.01). {blacksquare}, C282Y heterozygote, high-iron-bioavailability diet; {square}, wild type, high-iron-bioavailability diet; {blacktriangleup}, C282Y heterozygote, iron-fortified cereal products; {triangleup}, wild type, iron-fortified cereal products. Linear regression analysis of the log transformed serum ferritin concentration and the difference between nonheme-iron absorption from the high-iron-bioavailability diet and the iron-fortified cereal products showed a strong negative effect of serum ferritin (P < 0.001).

 
Mean (± SD) red blood cell utilization of the intravenously administered Fe-58 was 79 ± 4%, 73 ± 8%, and 75 ± 5% in the wild-type, C282Y heterozygote, and compound-heterozygote groups, respectively. Individual values varied between 62% and 88%; the overall mean value was 76 ± 7%. Analysis of variance showed no significant effect of genotype on red blood cell utilization.

An analysis of variance model was used to examine the relation between iron absorption (mg of isotope dose) from the high-iron-bioavailability diet and the iron-fortified cereal products, indexes of iron status (hemoglobin, serum iron, total-iron-binding, transferrin saturation, serum ferritin and soluble transferrin receptor), lean body mass, body surface area, and HFE genotype. The linear regression model (Table 5Go) indicated that serum ferritin (P < 0.001) and serum iron (P < 0.001) were the only significant predictors of absorption from the high-iron-bioavailability diet. In this model, 2 subjects were identified as outliers (1 wild-type carrier and 1 compound heterozygote, both of whom had low serum ferritin and high iron absorption) and were removed from the analysis. There was weak evidence (P = 0.06) that a third subject, also a wild type, with low serum ferritin and high iron absorption, was an outlier. When this subject was removed from the analysis, genotype became a significant predictor of absorption (P = 0.017), with Tukey’s honestly significant difference test showing that heterozygotes absorbed an average of 0.42 mg/d more Fe-57 than did the wild-type control subjects. Serum ferritin (P < 0.001) and total-iron-binding capacity (P < 0.05) were the only significant predictors of absorption from cereal products.


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
C282Y homozygotes and C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes are at increased risk of developing hemochromatosis because of poorly controlled iron absorption. Although it is acknowledged that the HFE protein is involved in iron metabolism, its role in the regulation of iron absorption is not well understood (33). A multifunctional role for HFE, dependent on expression levels of proteins involved in iron transport, has been suggested on the basis of the results that indicated that HFE inhibits iron efflux in human colonic carcinoma cells (34). Before the discovery of the HFE gene, Lynch et al (6) identified 22 relatives of hemochromatosis patients, most of whom we assume were C282Y heterozygotes. These subjects absorbed significantly more nonheme iron than did healthy control subjects from a hamburger meal to which 20 mg Fe (as ferrous sulfate) with 100 mg ascorbic acid was added, but absorption of iron from the unfortified meal was not significantly different from that of the control subjects. The additional amount of iron absorbed from the meal was 1.35 mg (2.15 compared with 0.80 mg in the healthy control subjects). With the consumption of high-iron meals over a period of time, this group would have been expected to accumulate higher iron stores than the control subjects, yet the geometric mean serum ferritin concentration of the 22 relatives tested by Lynch et al was 50 µg/L compared with 68 µg/L in the 75 "normal" subjects, indicating that their habitual diet provided no opportunity to acquire additional iron. Serum ferritin concentration has not been reported to be higher in male and female C282Y heterozygotes (35, 36), but male C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes do have a higher serum ferritin concentration (37, 38).

Hunt and Zeng (39), following the design used by Lynch et al (6), recently reported that 11 C282Y heterozygotes (8 female, 3 male) and 12 wild-type subjects (9 female, 3 male) did not absorb different amounts of nonheme iron from single test meals. They were unable to confirm the finding that C282Y heterozygotes absorbed more nonheme iron from a fortified hamburger meal than did wild-type control subjects. There are many possible explanations for the differences between our results and those of Lynch et al (6). First, the differences in iron absorption between relatives of hemochromatosis patients and control subjects recruited by Lynch et al may not be representative of heterozygotes who do not have relatives with clinical hemochromatosis. Second, the isotope test doses in our study were consumed with 6 meals over a period of 2 (high-iron-bioavailability diet) or 3 (cereal products) d to give an estimate of average absorption and to minimize day-to-day variation associated with single-meal studies (40), whereas Lynch et al (1) measured absorption from a single meal containing a large dose (20 mg) of bioavailable iron. It is possible that short-term differences in absorption seen in a single meal are not reflected in subsequent meals because of the mucosal block effect (41–43).

Although our findings appear to have shown no significant differences between the groups, we cannot exclude the possibility that there is a subtle effect of genotype on iron absorption. The absorption from the high-iron-bioavailability diet data included 2 outliers, who were removed from the analysis, and there was also weak evidence (P = 0.06) of a third outlier. When this subject was removed from the analysis, genotype became a significant predictor of absorption (P = 0.017); heterozygotes absorbed an average of 0.42 mg Fe-57/d more than did the control subjects. Confirmation of a genotype effect would, however, require a sample size of 332 subjects per group to show a significant difference of 0.1 mg/d between groups, based on the pooled SD (0.46) of the heterozygote and wild-type men.

The calculation of iron absorption from isotope incorporation in erythrocytes is usually based on the assumption that 80% of absorbed iron is incorporated into red blood cells. In the present study, we measured the red blood cell incorporation of intravenous Fe-58 to examine the effect of genotype on iron metabolism. Mean red blood cell utilization was close to the mean 80% value previously reported for populations with normal iron stores, and the range of values agrees with those previously reported (44), which indicated that the utilization of absorbed iron in C282Y heterozygotes and C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes is not significantly different from that of wild-type men.

Our results indicate that the gross degree of regulatory control of nonheme-iron absorption in C282Y heterozygotes is not significantly different from that of wild-type men consuming Western-style diets that include large amounts of enhancers (440 mg ascorbic acid/d and 364 g/d of meat, fish, or poultry) or moderate amounts of additional nonheme iron (15 mg/d). The small number of C282Y/H63D compound heterozygotes in this study made it difficult to draw conclusions about the effects of genotype on the efficiency of iron absorption. However, a small proportion of compound heterozygotes accumulate excess iron, and it is estimated that the genotype is 0.5–1.5% as penetrant as is C282Y homozygosity (1, 45). Our results, the well-established low penetrance of the C282Y homozygous genotype (3, 7, 46–48) and the recent suggestion that hepcidin may play an important role in the regulation of iron absorption (49), suggest that HFE mutations alone may not be sufficient to produce iron overload. Failure to up-regulate hepcidin concentrations, despite hepatic iron overload, has been shown in HFE knockout mice (50) and in HFE-related hemochromatosis (51), and disruption of the normal hepcidin response to iron stores may contribute to iron accumulation.

In conclusion, our results indicate that there is no statistically significant difference in nonheme-iron absorption from a diet high in bioavailable iron and from iron-fortified cereals in C282Y heterozygotes and wild-type control subjects, although there may be a subtle effect of genotype on the efficiency of iron absorption.


   ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
 
SJF-T and MAR designed and coordinated the project. A-LMH was responsible for the dietary aspects. SLO, CM, and GM-N carried out the human study and prepared the samples for stable-isotope measurement by mass spectrometry, which was conducted by JAH. JRD carried out the stable-isotope calculations. RF performed the statistical analysis of the data GW determined the genotypes of the subjects. There were no conflicts of interest for any of the authors.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 SUBJECTS AND METHODS
 RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

  1. Feder JN, Gnirke A, Thomas W, et al. A novel MHC class I-like gene is mutated in patients with hereditary haemochromatosis. Nat Genet 1996;13:399–408.[Medline]
  2. Willis G, Jennings BA, Goodman E, et al. A high prevalence of HLA-H 845A mutations in hemochromatosis patients and the normal population in eastern England. Blood Cells Mol Dis 1997;23(14):288–91.[Medline]
  3. Jackson HA, Carter K, Darke C, et al. HFE mutations, iron deficiency and overload in 10500 blood donors. Br J Haematol 2001;114:474–84.[Medline]
  4. Murphy S, Curran MD, McDougall N, et al. High incidence of the Cys 282 Tyr mutation in the HFE gene in the Irish population—implications for haemochromatosis. Tissue Antigens 1998;52:484–8.[Medline]
  5. The UK Haemochromatosis Consortium. A simple genetic test identifies 90% of UK patients with haemochromatosis. Gut 1997;41:841–4.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  6. Lynch SR, Skikne BS, Cook JD. Food iron absorption in idiopathic hemochromatosis. Blood 1989;74:2187–93.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  7. Willis G, Scott DGI, Jennings BA, et al. HFE mutations in an inflammatory arthritis population. Rheumatology 2002;41:176–9.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  8. Hume R. Prediction of lean body mass from height and weight. J Clin Pathol 1966;19:389–91.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  9. Dubois D, Dubois EF. A formula to estimate the approximate surface area if height and weight be known. Arch Intern Med 1916;17:863–71.
  10. Nadler SB, Hidalgo JU, Bloch T. Prediction of blood volume in normal human adults. Surgery 1962;51:224–32.
  11. Disler PB, Lynch SR, Charlton RW, et al. Studies on the fortification of cane sugar with iron and ascorbic acid. Br J Nutr 1975;34:141–52.[Medline]
  12. Cook JD, Monsen ER. Vitamin C, the common cold, and iron absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 1977;30:235–41.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  13. Lynch SR, Cook JD. Interaction of vitamin C and iron. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1980;355:32–44.[Abstract]
  14. Hallberg L, Brune M, Rossander L. Effect of ascorbic acid on iron absorption from different types of meals. Studies with ascorbic acid-rich foods and synthetic ascorbic acid given in different amounts with different meals. Hum Nutr Appl Nutr 1986;40:97–113.[Medline]
  15. Cook JD, Monsen ER. Food iron absorption in human subjects. III. Comparison of the effect of animal proteins on nonheme iron absorption Am J Clin Nutr 1976;29:859–67.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  16. Lynch SR, Hurrell RF, Dassenko SA, et al. The effect of dietary proteins on iron bioavailability in man. Adv Exp Med Biol 1989;249:117–32.[Medline]
  17. Gillooly M, Bothwell TH, Charlton RW, et al. Factors affecting the absorption of iron from cereals. Br J Nutr 1984;51:37–46.[Medline]
  18. Rossander-Hulthen L, Gleerup A, Hallberg L. Inhibitory effect of oat products on non-haem iron absorption in man. Eur J Clin Nutr 1990;44:783–91.[Medline]
  19. Hurrell RF, Juillerat M-A, Reddy MB, et al. Soy protein, phytate, and iron absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1992;56:573–8.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  20. Hallberg L, Brune M, Rossander L. Iron absorption in man: ascorbic acid and dose dependent inhibition by phytate. Am J Clin Nutr 1989;49:140–4.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  21. Siegenberg D, Baynes RD, Bothewell TH, et al. Ascorbic acid prevents the dose-dependent inhibitory effects of polyphenols and the phytates on non-heme iron absorption. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:537–41.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  22. Disler PB, Lynch SR, Charlton RW, et al. The effect of tea on iron absorption. Gut 1975;16:193–200.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  23. Brune M, Rossander L, Hallberg L. Iron absorption and phenolic compounds: importance of different phenolic structures. Eur J Clin Nutr 1989;43:547–58.[Medline]
  24. Hallberg L, Brune M, Erlandsson M, et al. Calcium: effect of different amounts on nonheme and heme iron absorption in humans. Am J Clin Nutr 1991;53:112–9.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  25. Food Standards Agency. McCance and Widdowson’s the composition of foods. 6th summary ed. Cambridge, United Kingdom: The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2002.
  26. Chan W, Brown J, Lee SM, Buss DH. Meat, poultry and game. Fifth supplement to the 5th edition of McCance and Widdowson’s the composition of foods. Cambridge, United Kingdom: The Royal Society of Chemistry, 1995.
  27. Fox TE, Eagles J, Fairweather-Tait SJ. Bioavailability of iron glycine as a fortificant in infant foods. Am J Clin Nutr 1998;67:664–8.[Abstract]
  28. Dainty JR, Roe MA, Teucher B, et al. Quantification of unlabeled non-haem iron absorption in human subjects: a pilot study. Br J Nutr 2003;90:503–6.[Medline]
  29. Rosman KJR, Taylor PDP. Isotopic compositions of the elements. Pure Appl Chem 1998;70:217–36.
  30. R Development Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2004.
  31. Hallberg L, Hulthén L, Gramatkovski E. Iron absorption from the whole diet in men: how effective is the regulation of iron absorption? Am J Clin Nutr 1997;66:347–56.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  32. Hulthén L, Gramatkovski E, Gleerup A, Hallberg L. Iron absorption from the whole diet. Relation to meal composition, iron requirements and iron stores. Eur J Clin Nutr 1995;49:794–808.[Medline]
  33. Chorney MJ, Yoshida Y, Meyer PN, et al. The enigmatic role of the hemochromatosis protein (HFE) in iron absorption. Trends Mol Med 2003;9(3):118–25.
  34. Davies PS, Enns CA. Expression of the hereditary hemochromatosis protein HFE increases ferritin levels by inhibiting iron export in HT29 cells. J Biol Chem 2004;279(24):25085–92.
  35. Burt MJ, George PM, Upton JD, et al. The significance of haemochromatosis gene mutations in the general population: implications for screening. Gut 1998;43:830–6.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  36. Datz C, Haas T, Rinner H, et al. Heterozygosity for the C282Y mutation in the haemochromatosis gene is associated with increased serum iron, transferrin saturation, and hemoglobin in young women: a protective role against iron deficiency? Clin Chem 1998;44:2429–32.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  37. Beutler E, Felitti V, Gelbart T, et al. The effect of HFE genotypes on measurements of iron overload in patients attending a health appraisal clinic. Ann Intern Med 2000;133:329–37.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  38. Rossi E, Bulsara MK, Olnyk JK, et al. Effect of hemochromatosis genotype and lifestyle factors on iron and red cell indices in a community population. Clin Chem 2001;47:202–8.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  39. Hunt JR, Zeng H. Iron absorption by heterozygous carriers of the HFE C282Y mutation associated with hemochromatosis. Am J Clin Nutr 2004;80:924–31.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  40. Björn-Rasmussen E, Hallberg L, Magnusson B, et al. Measurement of iron absorption from composite meals. Am J Clin Nutr 1976;29:772–8.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  41. Brown EB, Dubach R, Moore CV. Studies in iron transportation and metabolism XI. Critical analysis of mucosal block by large doses of inorganic iron in human subjects. J Lab Clin Med 1958;52:335–55.[Medline]
  42. Crosby WH. The control of iron balance by the intestinal mucosa. Blood 1963;22:441–9.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  43. Frazer DM, Wilkins SJ, Becker EM, et al. A rapid decrease in the expression of DMT1 and Dcytb but not Ireg1 or hephaestin explains the mucosal block phenomenon of iron absorption. Gut 2003;52:340–6.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  44. Finch CA, Deubelbeiss K, Cook JD, et al. Ferrokinetics in man. Medicine 1970;49:17–53.[Medline]
  45. Beutler E, Gelbart T, West C, et al. Mutation analysis in hereditary hemochromatosis. Blood Cells Mol Dis 1996;22(16):187–94.
  46. Willis G, Wimperis JZ, Smith KC, et al. HFE (haemochromatosis gene) C282Y homozygotes in an elderly male population. Lancet 1999;354:221–2.[Medline]
  47. Willis G, Wimperis JZ, Lonsdale R, et al. Incidence of liver disease in people with HFE mutations. Gut 2000;46:401–4.[Abstract/Free Full Text]
  48. Beutler E, Felitti VJ, Koziol JA, et al. Penetrance of 845G*A (C282Y) HFE hereditary haemochromatosis mutation in the USA. Lancet 2002;359:211–8.[Medline]
  49. Nicolas G, Viatte L, Lou DQ, et al. Constitutive hepcidin expression prevents iron overload in a mouse model of haemochromatosis. Nat Genet 2003;34(1):97–101.
  50. Ahmad KA, Ahmann JR, Migas MC, et al. Decreased liver hepcidin expression in the Hfe knockout mouse. Blood Cells Mol Dis 2002;29:361–6.[Medline]
  51. Bridle KR, Frazer DM, Wilkins SJ, et al. Disrupted hepcidin regulation in HFE-associated haemochromatosis and the liver as a regulator of body iron homeostasis. Lancet 2003;361:669–73.[Medline]
  52. Rangan A, Ho R, Blight G, et al. Haem iron content of Australian meats and fish. Food Australia 1997;49:508–11.
Received for publication July 8, 2004. Accepted for publication November 19, 2004.




This article has been cited by other articles:


Home page
 J. Nutr.Home page
C. N. Armah, P. Sharp, F. A. Mellon, S. Pariagh, E. K. Lund, J. R. Dainty, B. Teucher, and S. J. Fairweather-Tait
L-{alpha}-Glycerophosphocholine Contributes to Meat's Enhancement of Nonheme Iron Absorption
J. Nutr., May 1, 2008; 138(5): 873 - 877.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
S. Navas-Carretero, A. M. Perez-Granados, B. Sarria, A. Carbajal, M. M. Pedrosa, M. A. Roe, S. J. Fairweather-Tait, and M. P. Vaquero
Oily Fish Increases Iron Bioavailability of a Phytate Rich Meal in Young Iron Deficient Women
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., February 1, 2008; 27(1): 96 - 101.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

Home page
 J. Am. Coll. Nutr.Home page
A.-L. M. Heath, M. A. Roe, S. L. Oyston, A. R. Gray, S. M. Williams, and S. J. Fairweather-Tait
Blood Loss Is a Stronger Predictor of Iron Status in Men Than C282Y Heterozygosity or Diet
J. Am. Coll. Nutr., February 1, 2008; 27(1): 158 - 167.
[Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

This Article
Right arrow Abstract Freely available
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Purchase Article
Right arrow View Shopping Cart
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Right arrow Citation Map
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrow reprints & permissions
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by Roe, M. A
Right arrow Articles by Fairweather-Tait, S. J
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by Roe, M. A
Right arrow Articles by Fairweather-Tait, S. J
Agricola
Right arrow Articles by Roe, M. A
Right arrow Articles by Fairweather-Tait, S. J

HOME HELP FEEDBACK SUBSCRIPTIONS ARCHIVE SEARCH TABLE OF CONTENTS